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President Washington & the 3 Branches of Gov't (1789 - 1791)

6/13/2015

Source: Ron Chernow. Washington: A Life (2010)

President George Washington, as a Virginia Planter, found it hard to adjust to a sedentary job in an urban setting; it very may well have weakened his overall health (pictured: a list of GW's serious health problems). In June, 1789, a fast-growing tumor appeared on his left thigh, accompanied by a high fever. It became excruciating for GW to even sit down - as it turned out, GW was in mortal danger of dying. He most likely had a carbuncle, which was a cluster of boils connected to each other under the skin.
On 17 June, 1789, Dr. Samuel Bard operated on GW's left thigh. The tumor was very large, and Bard had to excise the infected tissue and pus. It was an enormously painful procedure, but GW remained unfailingly courteous. GW was bedridden for weeks, and many wondered if he would ever regain the strength necessary to lead the nation as its first President. By early September, GW told Dr. Bard that the inflammation was almost gone.

In June, 1789, Congress tried to pass a law that required GW to get the permission of the Senate if he wanted to remove a member from his Cabinet. The Senate vote was a tie, and Vice-President John Adams voted against the bill. The significance of VP Adams' vote was that it prevented the emergence of a Parliamentary-style Democracy in the U.S.
President Washington appeared in the Senate twice. The first was to personally ask why one of his appointments was being blocked. The second (and last) time was to inquire (with his Secretary of War, Henry Knox) the status in terms of ratification of a negotiated treaty with the Creek Nation. The Senate obfuscated by referring the proposed treaty to a committee for further study; GW responded by saying "that defeats the whole purpose of my coming here" - Washington never again returned to the U.S. Senate.
From that point on, President Washington sent missives to Congress, notifying them of his decisions. These actions did more to define the Presidency and the conduct of foreign policy than an entire shelf of Supreme Court decisions on the separation of power among the three branches.
(Below: From the 15:12 - 18:57 mark, watch GW in the Senate w/ the Creek Treaty)

President Washington made the Executive the principle actor in the federal government, negotiating treaties and nominating people for confirmation. GW knew that one man could make and take decisive action, as opposed to a legislative body. Among his decisive actions, and an enduring mystery of GW's Presidency: why did he relegate Vice-President John Adams (pictured) to a minor role in his administration . . . Adams was clearly excluded from Washington's inner circle of advisors.
Adams was probably a casualty of being identified, by Washington, as the nominal head of the Senate. GW also had a long memory of those that criticized him during the Revolution, and Adams was one of the names at the top of Washington's list. GW believed that criticism was a lack of loyalty, and many people paid a price for what they said about Commander-in-Chief Washington when he was President. Meanwhile, Adams was secretly exasperated by GW's success and prestige as President; John Adams' greatest fear was that Washington and Franklin would dwarf him in American History.

What hurt Adams was that Washington preferred to tap the talents of younger men, such as Hamilton, Madison, and Jefferson. What hurt Washington's focus in his early months as President was that he was absolutely besieged with office seekers, since he had to fill over 1000 posts in the new federal government. GW tried to be as impartial as possible with his selections because he wanted to strengthen the legitimacy of the new government.
Washington set up five departments that were designed to provide advice: Treasury, War, State, Attorney General, and Postmaster General. With the Constitution mum about Presidential advisors, GW created the first Cabinet (not pictured; the Postmaster General, Samuel Osgood); by doing so, he created a major shift from Legislative to Executive (in effect, he found another way to bypass Congress). Jefferson viewed the first Cabinet as a wheel, with Washington as the hub, and the others as the spokes . . . but those spokes featured an incredible array of talented young (relative to GW) men.

SecWar Henry Knox was Washington's closest friend (kind of his "Work-Wife") and ally, which he desperately needed, since he wasn't really close to anyone else but his wife Martha. Typically, GW wasn't an original thinker or policy-maker, but he was very comfortable helping Knox supervise the War Department. For the Treasury, GW first approached Robert Morris, but he felt he was too busy (and also didn't want to mess w/ his prosperity), so he recommended Alexander Hamilton (pictured left below with Jefferson). GW knew Hamilton's faults, but he had worked with him twice before during the Revolution and the Constitutional Convention. It's hard to believe, but Hamilton, the great Secretary of the Treasury, wasn't Washington's first choice for the position.
For the crucial position of Secretary of State, GW offered the post first to John Jay, but Jay had his eye on being the first Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. GW then "settled" for someone he knew from his days in the Virginia Assembly: Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson took months to decide whether-or-not to accept the position; he took so long that both GW and James Madison had to pressure him hasten his decision (to accept!).
Hamilton practically burst through the doors of the Treasury Department with sky-high enthusiasm and a desire to do his best to make the new federal government a long-term success. Jefferson, on the other hand, was not very enthusiastic in carrying out his duties as the first SecState. A possible reason for his delay for accepting the post, and his lack of energy in heading State was that he wasn't very comfortable with the federal government as envisioned, written, and ratified.

A main source for the problems and friction between Hamilton and Jefferson was that GW wanted his Cabinet to advise him on all fronts. For example, GW would often ask Hamilton for input on foreign affairs, which obviously rankled Jefferson. It also meant that Cabinent members often tread on each other's turf, and rivalries and resentment were the consequence.
The Attorney General was Edmund Randolph (pictured; he was only 36), and he was frustrated in that he really didn't have a department to run like the others . . . it was basically GW and him. Randolph had so little to do that he actually took private clients as a lawyer.
There was high turnover in the early years of the Supreme Court under the Constitution; "Riding the Circuit" was the main reason. Supreme Court justices spent a long time away from the comforts of home, and also had to endure miserable working conditions and substandard lodging. The lack of prestige alone lead to resignations and a low-level of interest in serving on the Court. GW would appoint 11 justices to the Supreme Court (in the early decades, there were only 6 justices) . . . the Supreme Court was an institution searching for a mission.

For Washington, the good news about being President was, unlike being Commander-in-Chief during the Revolutionary War, he was able to take his time in making most every decision. Washington, therefore, made far-fewer mistakes as the Chief Executive. GW worried more about committing an error than making a brilliant decision that would lead to a cacophony of "Huzzahs".
For example, Washington deliberated quite a while on the pros and cons of the proposed
Bill of Rights; he then actually changed his previous stance in opposition to adding amendments to the Constitution. GW's open support of the Bill of Rights broke the logjam in Congress in terms of their proposal for ratification.

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Marcus Garvey and the KKK in Nebraska

6/8/2015

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Source: Manning Marable. Malcolm X: A Life of Reinvention (2011)

The most famous African-American Civil Rights leaders of the late-1800s / early-1900s were Booker T. Washington and W.E.B DuBois, but there was a third major leader during that era; by 1916, Marcus Garvey had become an influential civil rights and political figure.
Garvey, from Jamaica, was actually recruited to come to the U.S. by Booker T. Washington; they shared the same general philosophy in terms of "Separate But Equal". Their main difference was that BTW was willing to work with whites (he needed funding for the Tuskegee Institute), while Garvey advocated total separation of the races. Garvey was the main founder of the UNIA (United Negro Improvement Association); in the U.S., membership in the UNIA reached into the hundreds of thousands.

Garvey's philosophy was basically what came to be known in the 1960s as "Black Pride"
and "Black Power", but he wanted those goals to be achieved within African-American communities. To illustrate how serious he was in pursuit of his philosophy, he started the "Black Star Line", a passenger ship service for African-Americans. Garvey claimed that the UNIA was a religious organization, mostly to be able to attract as many members as possible; with that declaration, Garvey operated in the political, religious, and economic spheres of African-American life.
Marcus Garvey's main mistake, one that would be made decades later by Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam, was that he met with Ku Klux Klan leaders. The UNIA and the KKK actually had some common interests, since they both advocated total racial segregation. By the early-1920s, Garvey had reached the conclusion (as had many others) that the KKK was the de facto secret government of the U.S., and confrontation was useless. When news of that meeting leaked, many UNIA followers left the organization, but those that remained were beyond-steadfast in their loyalty to Garvey (among them were Earl and Louise Little, the parents of Malcolm X).

By the early-1920s, Marcus Garvey was on the radar of the federal government, and viewed as a threat; Garvey was arrested for mail fraud (a very serious charge back then) concerning his "Black Star Line". After two years of exhausting appeals, he entered a federal prison in Atlanta. Despite his arrest, the UNIA was still strong in the South and the Midwest / Great Plains, but by 1927 had largely disintegrated in Urban America. President Calvin Coolidge commuted Garvey's sentence in 1927, and ordered him deported to Jamaica.
"Garveyism" flourished in the Caribbean, and in the rural South and enclaves of African-American populations outside urban areas after his deportation. One of the main reasons why the UNIA lost followers in urban areas was due to the rise of the NAACP - the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, with its largely middle-class membership, viewed the UNIA as an inferior organization, increasing the level of divisiveness within the African-American Civil Rights Movement of the early Twentieth Century.

The UNIA in some ways was the precursor to the Nation of Islam, in that the basic tenet of the NOI was total separation of the races. Garvey also provided a model for Malcolm X to follow; Malcolm X, like Garvey before him, wanted to positively impact the lives of African-Americans in terms of religion, politics, and economics.
The 2nd KKK started to become manifest by the early-1900s, and after WW I, this "New-and-Improved" hate group had millions of members. This Klan, totally unrelated to the original KKK which died out in the 1870s, had millions of members (the main reason why this hate group chose to call themselves the KKK was for name brand recognition).
The 2nd KKK was xenophobic n that they hated not only African-Americans, but also Jews, Catholics, and recent Immigrants. Nebraska's first branch of the KKK, Klavern #1, was established in 1921; 24 more KKK groups were started in Nebraska by the end of the year. (pictured: a KKK rally in McCook, 1924). By 1923, membership in the Ku Klux Klan in Nebraska was over 45,000. In January of 1923, an anti-KKK coalition petitioned the Legislature to outlaw KKK members from holding any public office, but their effort didn't come close to appearing on a ballot. In 1924, the KKK held a state convention in Lincoln; over 1,100 Klansman paraded down "O" Street in plain sight, showing their faces for all to see.

The parents of Malcolm X, Earl and Louise Little, lived in Omaha in 1923. With Earl out of town, the KKK surrounded their house; only a pregnant Louise with small children were home. After the requisite intimidation and threats concerning their efforts with the UNIA, the KKK broke all of the windows in the Little's house before they departed.
(Pictured below: the KKK marches on "O" Street in Lincoln on 4 July, 1924)
The year 1925 marked the apex of the KKK in Nebraska, in that the Klan had the greatest number of members in a variety of social classes, a women's branch of the KKK was established, thousands of boys were part of the "Junior Klan", while more-and-more girls were in "Tri-K Clubs". The KKK decided to hold its annual convention at the same time as the Nebraska State Fair, and even held events that were included in the State Fair, such as parades - a public KKK picnic held right by the State Fair attracted 25,000 people. Also, in the year 1925, Louise Little gave birth to another son, which she and Earl named Malcolm . . .

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George Washington and the Constitutional Convention

6/8/2015

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Source: Ron Chernow. Washington: A Life (2010)

Due to incompetence and the extreme selfishness of the states, the U.S. was unable to repay its Revolutionary War debts under the Articles of Confederation. Also, there was no realistic way to create a decent army or navy without at least a modicum of federal power. George Washington and Alexander Hamilton saw a strong federal government as the best way to repay the debts, establish a national army and navy, and deter monarchy.
James Madison, over the last several years, had been a key figure in shaping GW's political views; he joined with James Monroe and Edmund Randolph in pressing GW to re-enter politics, since the Constitutional Convention scheduled in Philadelphia in May, 1787.
Shays' Rebellion (1786-1787) was perhaps the most useful crisis in U.S. History. The rebellion horrified GW, and his letters show much more political agitation than what he showed on the surface. Shays' Rebellion also crystallized GW's belief that the Articles of Confederation had to be replaced with a stronger national government . . . his days as a Virginia Planter at Mount Vernon were yet again numbered.

In late-1786, Madison notified GW that he was chosen to head the seven man Virginia delegation in Philadelphia. Although GW was leaning on going to Philadelphia, with the intent of "revising" the Articles of Confederation, he hadn't formally committed to the delegation.
Henry Knox (GW's artillery officer during the Revolution) made GW's decision for him: in a personal letter, Knox argued that if GW didn't go to Philadelphia and the convention failed, it would forever harm GW's reputation in history. But, if GW presided over the convention, and a strong federal government was the result, then GW would become even greater in the present, and more-so in history.

In other words, Knox appealed to GW's extreme vanity; GW was always extremely conscious of what others thought of him, both in terms of appearance and reputation (which explained why GW would not go to Philadelphia until he was "summoned from retirement" by the public). GW and Madison were primed for decisive action at the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, ready to create a new national government.

Once in Philadelphia, the first person that GW visited was an (ailing) Ben Franklin, who he hadn't seen since 1776 (and who was his only realistic rival to being named President of the Constitutional Convention). The Constitutional Convention started on 14 May, 1787, and the only state delegations in in attendance were from Virginia and Pennsylvania. GW hated tardiness, and was profoundly irritated that the convention wasn't able to start because there wasn't a quorum of seven states present (pictured: Franklin addressing GW during the Constitutional Convention).
The Virginia delegation became a cohesive group, meeting for 2 to 3 hours a day until the convention was able to officially begin. On 25 May, 1787, the convention finally had seven state delegations, and GW was unanimously elected President of the convention.
The role of President was ideal for GW, in that the position was officially nonpartisan and nonspeaking while in session (He would have plenty to say when the convention was out of session). GW was not an "Originator", but a keen judge of the points-of-view and arguments from others; it also greatly benefited GW that others framed the debate during the convention. GW's mere presence guaranteed that the Constitutional Convention was at least perceived as striving for the public good.

GW had to leave the chair during the debate on the Virginia Plan, but other than that instance, he held his tongue while presiding over the convention . . . but he was "all-in" for a strong federal government. GW's influence was by far the main reason why the Constitution featured a strong executive (Pictured: GW addressing the convention).
For the most part, the delegates at the convention were motivated and governed by their hopes rather than their fears, which was largely attributed to the presence of GW. Also, GW was the reason why each member of the House of Representatives was based on 30,000 citizens. Despite not getting all he wanted in the final draft, he was a strong supporter of the proposed Constitution; he put his trust in the amendment process to refine any imperfections contained in the document.

GW saw that The Federalist Essays were way-past regular journalism; it was classical political philosophy from Madison and Hamilton (with a dash of John Jay). Behind the scenes, GW made sure the Federalist essays were published in Virginia, which became especially important after New York narrowly ratified the Constitution (the VA state convention became the 10th state to ratify with an 89-79 vote; RI and NC were the last two holdouts).
As the newly "elected" President, GW didn't see himself finishing the first term; he figured in two years, he would be back at Mount Vernon . . . he never envisioned eight long years as President. Had GW known his commitment would have been that long, he never would have agreed to be the nation's first Chief Executive.
(Below: the results of the "Election" of 1789 - side note: John Adams was appalled that he didn't even receive anything close to half the Electoral Votes, such was his view of his level of importance at this time in U.S. History)

The first Inauguration was set for 4 March, 1789, in New York City, but bad roads due to a lingering winter delayed GW's first Inauguration until April. GW was in severe financial straits as he entered the Presidency; bad harvests (weather/insects), deadbeat renters, inflation, and his lavish spending contributed to his financial stress. GW actually had to borrow money to pay his taxes, and then he had to borrow more to PAY FOR HIS TRIP TO NYC TO BE INAUGURATED as the nation's first President.

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FDR Declares War on America's Isolationists (1940 - 1941)

6/4/2015

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Source: Lynne Olson. Those Angry Days: Roosevelt, Lindbergh, and
America's Fight Over World War II, 1939 - 1941 (2013)

By the latter third of 1940, FDR had become absolutely furious with America's Isolationists; so much so that he would dictate an off-the-record "Dossier of Grudges" in order to let some of his internal rage escape. But, once free of the "Election Barrier" from 5 November, 1940, FDR went on the attack against the Isolationists. FDR had hoped that the Lend-Lease Act would effectively end the Isolationist Movement (especially the America First Committee). Although diminished, die-hard Isolationists vowed to fight to the end against FDR's Internationalism. It didn't help matters that FDR insisted on national loyalty . . . only they had to be entirely on his terms.

In the process of attacking Isolationists in the name of national loyalty, FDR made a great mistake: instead of choosing to educate & illuminate Americans on what was at stake in Europe, he chose to attack, discredit, and dismiss the Isolationists. In essence, it was the birth of the Loyalty and Security Risks; those that didn't support FDR had their reputations attacked and their loyalties questions . . . many were even investigated.
FDR believed that Lindbergh was the main reason for the (in his opinion) hesitation for the U.S. to become more directly involved in aiding Great Britain against the Nazis. It was FDR's point-of-view that Lindbergh controlled the balance-of-power in the Isolationist Movement. Therefore, according to FDR's logic, if Lindbergh was the Lineal (Indispensable) Leader, and Lindbergh was taken out of the "Great Debate", then the Isolationist Movement would disappear as well. Dorothy Thompson, the most famous female journalist in the U.S. in 1941, went so far to compare Lindbergh's Isolationist followers to the Hitler Youth.

The FDR White House recruited many to attack Lindbergh in public, including one of FDR's speechwriters, Robert Sherwood, who publicly called Lindbergh a Nazi. Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes also went on the attack, reminding everyone that he was the first "Lindbergh Hater". Ickes claimed that Lindbergh raised aloft the standard of Nazism in America (to the left, Lindbergh was delivering another radio address on behalf of America First).
By the spring of 1941, FDR was convinced (like Ickes) that Lindbergh was a "Conscious Fascist". At the end of April, FDR appointed John Franklin Carter to be in charge of a secret organization . . . his mission was to collect information, from public opinion all the way to the actions of his enemies, and report only to the President.

On 25 April, 1941, a reporter asked FDR why Lindbergh hadn't been called up to active duty in the Reserve Army Air Corps. Citing historical evidence (from John Franklin Carter), FDR responded that during the Civil War, many citizens were not allowed to serve due to their "defeatist attitude" (FDR was specifically citing Clement Vallandigham, the leader of the Copperheads; when he was asked if was referring to Vallandigham, FDR answered yes).

For all intents-and-purposes, FDR called Charles Lindbergh a traitor to his nation.
Wendell Willkie did not support FDR's name-calling; he stated that Hitler should be the person that Americans despised. Lindbergh was uncharacteristically shaken by FDR's public attack, mostly due to the fact that the President questioned his loyalty to his nation.

After a few days, Lindbergh wrote a letter to FDR, in which he resigned his commission in the Reserve Army Air Corps. Lindbergh also released the letter to the public on the same day he sent it to the White House; it was the same tactic he used in 1934 when he embarrassed FDR during the Air Mail contract dispute. Life magazine had little sympathy for either famous figure, stating that FDR delivered an unnecessary insult, and that Lindbergh's resignation was a result of an unnecessary temper tantrum.
Lindbergh's radio addresses became much more bitter, demagogic, and contentious. He specifically maligned FDR and other administration officials, claiming that they were undermining American Democracy. With FDR and Lindbergh setting the tone, the "Great Debate" to determine America's involvement in the War in Europe became even more vitriolic.
(Below: A portion of Lindbergh's America 1st speech at Des Moines on 11 September 1941; even if you listen for a few minutes, you can tell it was a controversial speech)

Internationalists were also divided, but along the lines of moderates vs. radicals, and the moderates were losing. By the summer of 1941, it was common to see street-corner rallies descend into public physical brawls between Isolationists and Internationalists. For the America First Committee, it became more-and-more difficult finding public places to hold their rallies.
Lindbergh, more than ever, needed constant security when he appeared in public. J. Edgar Hoover (with FDR's blessing), had the FBI keep Lindbergh under very close surveillance . . . his phones had already been tapped for months. FDR asked FBI Director Hoover (pictured) to also investigate other prominent Isolationists, as well as major opponents of the Lend-Lease Act (those investigations presaged the FBI's investigational strategies during the Vietnam Era).

Theodor Geisel (a.k.a. Dr. Seuss) became a major player in the "Blame Game" during this incredibly divisive time in U.S. History. Geisel was an editorial cartoonist for the left-leaning Internationalist New York City daily newspaper called PM. To Geisel, Isolationists were the enemies of Democracy, and they needed to be exposed as such.
Geisel had already published two children's books as Dr. Seuss (the second was Horton Hatches an Egg), when he started working at PM. Geisel's cartoons constantly skewered Axis leaders and US Isolationists. Next to Hitler, Geisel's favorite target was Lindbergh, as you can see to the left. Geisel's symbol for Isolationism was the ostrich with its head in the sand; as a result of Geisel's attacks (and others), America First moderates left the committee, leaving the hard-core extreme right in charge of the "Firsters". Lindbergh, quite against his will, became the darling of the extremists in America First.

The House Un-American Activities Committee got into the act as well; created in 1934, it was revived in 1938 by ultra-conservatives in Congress. By 1938, HUAC's main focus was the New Deal, which was labeled a "Communist Conspiracy". The chairman of HUAC, Representative Martin Dies, Jr. (TX; pictured), was like Joseph McCarthy in the 1950s in his efforts to ruin lives. McCarthy's template for oppression in the 1950s was created in the late-1930s by Dies, Jr. and HUAC.
HUAC went after any "Communist" that it believed interfered with what they considered to be the "American Way", and Internationalists were on their list to investigate. The time between 1939 and 1941 was so divisive, even the ACLU
(American Civil Liberties Union) barred/expelled anyone that had political ties to groups that were associated with dictatorship in any nation.
The most divisive era in U.S. History during the 20th Century would reach its crescendo on 6 December, 1941, before Pearl Harbor not only rendered the "Great Debate" moot, but also blasted the "Great Debate" into historical oblivion . . .

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Pearl Harbor: America's "Reverse Earthquake"

6/1/2015

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Source: Lynne Olson. Those Angry Days: Roosevelt, Lindbergh, and
America's Fight Over World War II, 1939 - 1941 (2013)

Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December, 1941, proved that BOTH the Internationalists and the Isolationists were wrong. The Internationalists (FDR included) badly underestimated Japan, focusing on Nazi Germany as the threat to America. Isolationists were shown that a foreign power could attack America in its own hemisphere.
Pearl Harbor also shook FDR from his "Leadership Lethargy", that was the hallmark of his mostly disastrous second term in office. For the first time in over five years, FDR once again became the decisive leader that America needed during a national crisis. Charles Lindbergh gave a terse "we need to be united" radio address, and then disappeared from public view.

On 8 December, 1941, FDR asked a Joint Session of Congress for a declaration of war against Japan, but not against Nazi Germany. FDR was still hesitant to commit himself to any more than what was minimally required; for three horrible days, Britain faced the prospect of a two-front war with the U.S. only engaged in war in the Pacific.
The Axis agreement only committed Germany and Italy to declare war on the U.S. if America attacked Japan. Hitler was strongly advised to avoid declaring war against the U.S., but despite outwardly counseling patience for the last several months, he decided that Pearl Harbor was the "incident" for which he had been waiting. In his mind, Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor opened the door to address the many provocations that FDR had committed against Nazi Germany (and him) since the late-1930s.

On 11 December, 1941, Hitler appeared before the Reichstag, and in a fit of anger and rage, formally declared war against the U.S. Had Hitler not declared war on America, he almost certainly would have been able to conquer Europe, free-and-clear. Future Secretary of State Dean Acheson stated that our enemies, with "unparalleled stupidity", united Americans for a hard war.
Instead of demoralizing the U.S. as Japan envisioned, the attack on Pearl Harbor united a divided, fractious America. Pearl Harbor was like a "Reverse Earthquake", in that everything that was disjointed was put back in place. Pearl Harbor shook FDR out of his lethargy, and once again he became the indispensable leader for an America in crisis. And the economy, almost immediately, became war-oriented instead of consumer-oriented, which was the first step to unleashing our industrial might that would win the war. The nation also became far more conservative during World War II; the overall decrease in civil liberties was the cost.

During World War II, the number of Americans killed in action was 417,000, which was the lowest casualty percentage compared to a nation's population of any of the major belligerents. Alone among those belligerents, the U.S. was spared widespread devastation and suffering. The Isolationists were wrong in their prediction of economic disaster if the U.S. went to war. Instead, World War II ended the Great Depression, and started incredible economic growth; unemployment went from 14% to 2% during the war, while annual income increased 50%.
Ironically, the acrimonious and divisive national debate from 1939 - 1941 (on the role the U.S. should have in the War in Europe) actually prepared America for World War II. The positives and negatives were thoroughly explored and weighed throughout the nation. The U.S. was better prepared for a war spiritually and militarily than at any other time in the nation's history.

Without the knowledge of FDR and his administration, Lindbergh's military friends took him to the Pacific Theater. In a naval officers uniform (without insignias), he flew 50+ combat missions in Army or Navy planes for five months against Japan, while his superior officers looked the other way. Lindbergh's responsibilities ranged from patrol duty, escort duty, strafing runs, and dive-bombing, during which he recorded one confirmed kill. His recommendations for the P-38 Lighting (pictured above, with the pilot Charles Lindbergh) increased its range by 500 miles. Lindbergh was happy, in his element, flying with like-minded pilots facing danger.

After Pearl Harbor, Lindbergh wanted to be reinstated in the U.S. Army Air Corps, but that was something that FDR would not allow. Lindbergh's enemies didn't disappear after Pearl Harbor; Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes, like Inspector Javert in Les Miserables, continued to publicly torment Lindbergh.
Secretary of War Henry Stimson was stuck giving the bad news to Lindbergh, telling him that according to the President, his loyalty to his nation was still in question. Even the aviation industry avoided Lindbergh, since FDR threatened to cancel lucrative war-time contracts if Lindbergh was employed.
But Henry Ford, the Auto Magnate / Isolationist / Anti-Semite, came to Lindbergh's rescue. Lindbergh worked to improve the designs of the B-24 (Liberator) and the P-47 (Thunderbolt; pictured). Lindbergh even tested P-47's at extremely high altitudes, which saved pilots lives. Eventually allowed in other areas of aviation, Lindbergh played a major role in developing the Corsair, which was a fighter plane designed for use on aircraft carriers. Lindbergh proved his critics wrong: he stayed out of politics, and kept his mouth shut, focusing his efforts in the technology sector of aviation to help America win the war.

During World War II, Wendell Willkie became an "Ambassador at Large" for FDR, visiting every American ally of significance. In September, 1944, Willkie died suddenly at the age of 52, mostly as a result of excessive smoking, drinking, and eating.
A week after FDR died, Lindbergh finally emerged from political isolation on 19 April, 1945. With FDR gone, Lindbergh was no longer persona non grata to the federal government. Lindbergh, at President Truman's request, served as a special advisor to the U.S. Air Force, which was created as a separate branch of the military in 1947. President Eisenhower reinstated Lindbergh in the U.S. Air Force Reserve in 1954, and President Kennedy, a life-long admirer of Lindbergh, made sure that he stayed in the good graces of the U.S. Government.

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President Washington & the 3 Branches of Gov't (1789 - 1791)

Marcus Garvey and the KKK in Nebraska

George Washington and the Constitutional Convention

FDR Declares War on America's Isolationists (1940 - 1941)

Pearl Harbor: America's "Reverse Earthquake"

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