Source: Barbara Tuchman. The Guns of August:
The Outbreak of World War I (1962)
The Outbreak of World War I (1962)
By August of 1914, Turkey had many enemies, and no allies . . . no one in Europe considered Turkey "Alliance-Worthy". The Ottoman Empire was considered the "Sick Man of Europe" by the European powers, but Turkey had started to make a comeback in the early-1900s. Russia, France, and Great Britain had rival ambitions in Turkey's sphere of influence, which increased Germany's determination to become Turkey's patron. Turkey, since the turn-of-the-century, felt the shadow of the upcoming war creep up on them . . . Turkey feared Russia, resented Great Britain, and mistrusted Germany; with whom should Turkey align as the hour of the Great War approached? In early-August, 1914, Turkey formally agreed to an alliance with Germany, which was solidified due to the actions of the Goeben, a German battleship.
Turkey had one asset of inestimable value: her geographical position. Russia wanted Constantinople (Istanbul) for centuries, since the Dardanelles were her only year-round exit point to the Mediterranean and the Atlantic. Great Britain had been Turkey's traditional protector due to her strategic location, but Britain had tired of "propping up" what the government considered a corrupt, decrepit, and broke Turkey. Britain allowed her relations with Turkey to lapse at exactly the worst possible time; Britain turned down Turkey's request of a permanent alliance between the two nations in 1911. Even Winston Churchill (pictured), in charge of the Royal Navy, didn't recognize the value of an alliance with Turkey at that crucial point in history.
Great Britain held two state-of-the-art battleships that were made for Turkey in 1914. Turkey had made the initial payments towards the huge total sum of $30 million. Britain wanted to appropriate the ships for her own use, and kept providing excuses why the ships couldn't be turned over to Turkey. Turkey threatened to board and take the ships while in dock; Britain threatened to repel all boarders.
The British government didn't understand the deep insult (and expense) experienced by Turkey, in that those two ships had become a national obsession; on the same day that Britain officially notified Turkey that the ships were British property, Turkey formally aligned with Germany. Yet Turkey didn't actively do anything that would have been of assistance to Germany, such as declare war on Russia, or shut down Russia's access to-and-through the Black Sea, or compromise her overall neutrality with other nations . . . the Turkish government wanted to see how Germany performed in the early days of the war before fully committing herself as an ally.
The British government didn't understand the deep insult (and expense) experienced by Turkey, in that those two ships had become a national obsession; on the same day that Britain officially notified Turkey that the ships were British property, Turkey formally aligned with Germany. Yet Turkey didn't actively do anything that would have been of assistance to Germany, such as declare war on Russia, or shut down Russia's access to-and-through the Black Sea, or compromise her overall neutrality with other nations . . . the Turkish government wanted to see how Germany performed in the early days of the war before fully committing herself as an ally.
Germany had the 2nd-largest fleet in the world, but only two of those ships were in the Mediterranean Sea; the battle cruiser Goeben (a de facto dreadnought), and the light cruiser Breslau. The Goeben was a concern for Great Britain and France, due to its top speed of 27.8 knots per hour; the Goeben could outflank, outmaneuver, and attack all ships in the Mediterranean. While the Goeben was an impressive ship, the British placed too much stock in how Germany planned to use the Goeben (the British placed far too much stock in the entire German surface fleet, which Kaiser Wilhelm II basically refused to use-and-risk during the entire war).
On 3 August, 1914, Admiral Souchon, commander of the Goeben (pictured), was ordered to sail to Constantinople, as a show of good faith in the VERY recently agreed-upon alliance. Souchon wanted to restore his supply of coal in Italy, but Italy, still a neutral nation, refused to cooperate. In addition, the Goeben needed mechanical attention, especially with her main boilers. In order to break through to Constantinople past French & British ships, he needed the Goeben to perform at 100% capacity.
Souchon found a safe port at Messina in Sicily for repairs and coal. Churchill (the 1st Lord of the Admiralty) knew where the Goeben was located, but as of yet Britain and Germany were not at war (although by 3 August, Germany had declared war on France after entering Luxembourg and Belgium). Therefore, Churchill's orders to his ships in the Mediterranean were that they were not to be "brought into action versus a superior force". To Churchill at that point-in-time, the Austrian navy was that "Superior Force"; to the captains on the British warships, Churchill's orders meant that they could operate on their own discretion. Souchon was also in a position to act on his own discretion, in that his orders to sail to Constantinople were put on hold by Admiral Tirpitz; there was confusion as to whether the German-Turkish treaty had actually been formalized.
On 3 August, 1914, Admiral Souchon, commander of the Goeben (pictured), was ordered to sail to Constantinople, as a show of good faith in the VERY recently agreed-upon alliance. Souchon wanted to restore his supply of coal in Italy, but Italy, still a neutral nation, refused to cooperate. In addition, the Goeben needed mechanical attention, especially with her main boilers. In order to break through to Constantinople past French & British ships, he needed the Goeben to perform at 100% capacity.
Souchon found a safe port at Messina in Sicily for repairs and coal. Churchill (the 1st Lord of the Admiralty) knew where the Goeben was located, but as of yet Britain and Germany were not at war (although by 3 August, Germany had declared war on France after entering Luxembourg and Belgium). Therefore, Churchill's orders to his ships in the Mediterranean were that they were not to be "brought into action versus a superior force". To Churchill at that point-in-time, the Austrian navy was that "Superior Force"; to the captains on the British warships, Churchill's orders meant that they could operate on their own discretion. Souchon was also in a position to act on his own discretion, in that his orders to sail to Constantinople were put on hold by Admiral Tirpitz; there was confusion as to whether the German-Turkish treaty had actually been formalized.
Souchon,, once the Goeben was ready for departure at Messina, decided to go to North Africa to bombard French locations in Algiers. Churchill's orders to Admiral Milne, the senior Royal Navy admiral in the Mediterranean, was to shadow the Goeben, and be ready to attack when war was declared between the two nations; the problem was that Milne didn't know the location of the Goeben. The French fleet was ordered to intercept and attack the Goeben, and as it turned out, the French fleet and the Goeben were both heading to North Africa independently of each other.
Souchon had almost reached North Africa, when once again he was ordered to go to Constantinople, but he was unwilling to do so until he bombarded the Algerian coast. When the Goeben shelled French positions in Algiers, Souchon raised the RUSSIAN flag, and his men were in (kind-of) Russian uniforms, in the hope that Germany wouldn't be readily identified for the attack. After that, Souchon headed east, back to Messina to resupply his battleship.
The French fleet assumed that the Goeben would continue west, and waited to engage the German warship; they had no idea that the Goeben was heading east on a portentous political mission that would result in intensifying and prolonging the war that had just started.
Souchon had almost reached North Africa, when once again he was ordered to go to Constantinople, but he was unwilling to do so until he bombarded the Algerian coast. When the Goeben shelled French positions in Algiers, Souchon raised the RUSSIAN flag, and his men were in (kind-of) Russian uniforms, in the hope that Germany wouldn't be readily identified for the attack. After that, Souchon headed east, back to Messina to resupply his battleship.
The French fleet assumed that the Goeben would continue west, and waited to engage the German warship; they had no idea that the Goeben was heading east on a portentous political mission that would result in intensifying and prolonging the war that had just started.
The British ships, the Indomitable and the Indefatigable, encountered the Goeben heading east, but since there wasn't a state of war between the two nations, the ships passed each other without event. However, the two British ships turned around, and reported the Goeben's position, but could do nothing else. Churchill actually believed that the Goeben was heading WEST, and didn't give specific orders to the Indomitable and the Indefatigable. The Goeben (with the Breslau) were able to escape the two British ships, due to its speed, as well as darkness and weather.
By that time there was a state of war between Germany and Britain, but the British could not attack the Goeben at Messina, since that was in the sphere of (still) neutral Italy. Since the British fleet couldn't enter the Strait of Messina, Admiral Milne ordered ships to patrol both exit points. However, Milne believed that the Goeben was going to head west, and only had one ship patrolling the eastern exit; Britain's best ships were not in the right location to intercept the Goeben.
Due to continued frustration by Italy's lack of cooperation, Souchon couldn't get enough coal in Messina to reach Constantinople. Then, amazingly, Souchon received orders from Admiral Tirpitz to once again place his mission to Constantinople on hold. Souchon was also informed that the Austrian navy would be of no assistance in the Mediterranean - in essence, Souchon was in command of a fleet of two ships, and it was up to him as what to do next.
By that time there was a state of war between Germany and Britain, but the British could not attack the Goeben at Messina, since that was in the sphere of (still) neutral Italy. Since the British fleet couldn't enter the Strait of Messina, Admiral Milne ordered ships to patrol both exit points. However, Milne believed that the Goeben was going to head west, and only had one ship patrolling the eastern exit; Britain's best ships were not in the right location to intercept the Goeben.
Due to continued frustration by Italy's lack of cooperation, Souchon couldn't get enough coal in Messina to reach Constantinople. Then, amazingly, Souchon received orders from Admiral Tirpitz to once again place his mission to Constantinople on hold. Souchon was also informed that the Austrian navy would be of no assistance in the Mediterranean - in essence, Souchon was in command of a fleet of two ships, and it was up to him as what to do next.
Admiral Souchon decided to make a run for Constantinople, despite orders to the contrary. He decided that he would force the Turks into formalizing the alliance with Germany to aid his nation in the war. The British ships near the Adriatic Sea decided that the Goeben was a "Superior Force", and decided not to engage. Meanwhile, the Liberals in charge of the British government just didn't like Turkey, and therefore didn't connect any of the dots in terms of the Goeben's trek in the Mediterranean. Souchon evaded the British at the Aegean Sea, and was able to meet up with his German collier (coal ship). The British fleet at the Aegean settled for bottling-up the Goeben, since they were certain of being able to intercept the Goeben as it tried to exit the Aegean; it just didn't register to the British fleet, or the British government, that the Goeben was sailing towards Turkey.
Once the Goeben reached the Dardanelles, the burden was on the Turkish government whether to let the Goeben and the Breslau enter, and then to sail beyond that point. The military leader of Turkey, Enver Pasha ("The Young Turk", pictured), decided to let the Goeben and the Breslau enter the Dardanelles, and to be escorted to Constantinople. Pasha's next order was to instruct the forts guarding the entrance to the Dardanelles to fire on the British ships if they appeared. Once the Goeben and the Breslau were guided to Constantinople, the war that was just underway was guaranteed to become the nightmare of the Great War, featuring unfathomable slaughter and misery.
Once the Goeben reached the Dardanelles, the burden was on the Turkish government whether to let the Goeben and the Breslau enter, and then to sail beyond that point. The military leader of Turkey, Enver Pasha ("The Young Turk", pictured), decided to let the Goeben and the Breslau enter the Dardanelles, and to be escorted to Constantinople. Pasha's next order was to instruct the forts guarding the entrance to the Dardanelles to fire on the British ships if they appeared. Once the Goeben and the Breslau were guided to Constantinople, the war that was just underway was guaranteed to become the nightmare of the Great War, featuring unfathomable slaughter and misery.
The Goeben and the Breslau were actually purchased by Turkey in order to bolster their navy, but also as a slap in the face to Great Britain. Renamed the Jawus and Midilli, they flew the Turkish flag, and were reviewed by the Sultan . . . but Admiral Souchon and the German crew was still aboard the Goeben (nee Jawus). Still, for three months, Turkey wavered in terms of being an active wartime ally for Germany in the Black Sea region. Admiral Souchon, for the second time, made a decision that would alter World War I for the worse; he entered the Black Sea with the Goeben, and started firing on Russian targets. Since this act of war was conducted by a ship flying the Turkish flag, Russia declared war on Turkey on 4 November, 1914 . . . Britain and France declared war on Turkey on 5 November, 1914.
Due to the Goeben reaching Turkey, and forcing Turkey into war, Bulgaria, Romania, Greece, and Italy (reluctantly allied with Germany) were drawn into the war. Since the Black Sea was shut down to Russian ships (Archangel was their only real port left, and it was frozen half of the year), Russia lost 98% of their exports, and 95% of its imports . . . the resulting economic catastrophe was a large factor in causing the Russian Revolution in 1917.
Also as a result of the Goeben, the ridiculously unnecessary and costly Battle of Gallipoli
occurred. Allied strength was diverted to campaigns in Mesopotamia, Suez, and Palestine, and the break-up of the Ottoman Empire occurred during the Great War . . . . all due to Admiral Souchon's decisions in command of the Goeben from August to November, 1914.
Due to the Goeben reaching Turkey, and forcing Turkey into war, Bulgaria, Romania, Greece, and Italy (reluctantly allied with Germany) were drawn into the war. Since the Black Sea was shut down to Russian ships (Archangel was their only real port left, and it was frozen half of the year), Russia lost 98% of their exports, and 95% of its imports . . . the resulting economic catastrophe was a large factor in causing the Russian Revolution in 1917.
Also as a result of the Goeben, the ridiculously unnecessary and costly Battle of Gallipoli
occurred. Allied strength was diverted to campaigns in Mesopotamia, Suez, and Palestine, and the break-up of the Ottoman Empire occurred during the Great War . . . . all due to Admiral Souchon's decisions in command of the Goeben from August to November, 1914.