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Clarence Birdseye: The Path to the Frozen Food Industry, Part I

8/24/2014

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     Source: Mark Kurlansky. Birdseye: The Adventures of a Curious Man (2012)
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     Clarence Birdseye was a man who observed how things worked, and figured out how to make them work better. Birdseye was also an adventurer, even though he looked like someone that would be more at home in a library. While his innovations / inventions were all mechanical (never electronic), he made a huge impact in US History, most famously developing the frozen food industry. Birdseye risked his life to help people in Montana, and then on the Labrador Coast in Canada, all the while trying all sorts of different, and many times exotic, food. It was during those years as an adventurer in Canada that he figured out the best method to freeze food.

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     Clarence Frank Birdseye II was born in Brooklyn, NY on 9 December, 1886. At the turn of the century, Brooklyn was the third-largest city in America, and its dense urban population was possible due to the technology of refrigeration. Hundreds of thousands of people produced no food, but bought and stored food in ice-boxes; there was no other place in the world that used as much ice as the citizens of New York City and it surrounding boroughs . . . it was so common that they took the technology for granted.
    Birdseye grew up in an inventor's culture in America that valued practical and commercial applications; in Europe, the approach of inventors was far more theoretical. In the US, a successful inventor was one that founded an industry, such as Edison and electricity, or Eastman and film photography. Birdseye also grew up during the "Age of Extermination"; he couldn't remember a time when he didn't love to hunt. He romanticized the West, and his first hero was Buffalo Bill Cody.

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     Birdseye was a born Naturalist as well; he was happiest as a kid when wandering around Wyndiecote (an isolated wooded area) in Long Island. He bought a single-gauge shotgun at the age of ten by trapping twelve muskrat, and sending them to a buyer in Great Britain, earning the equivalent of $250 in today's money. He used the shotgun and learned how to preserve and stuff the animals he shot by reading and asking questions; even at that age, Birdseye was someone that everyone liked, and they wanted to answer his questions. 
     By the time he became a teenager, Birdseye was fascinated with science. During college, he was so curious about insects that he was called "Bugs" by his peers (He was also called "Spots", which he didn't mind as much). Birdseye didn't like the nickname "Bugs", and he was in a tough situation, in that he was an extrovert, but he kept to himself to avoid ridicule. In 1908, family financial troubles forced Birdseye to drop out of Amherst College in Massachusetts; he would never again pursue formal education. Very soon thereafter, he went West, looking for adventure while he was still young.

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     Birdseye went to Arizona and New Mexico in 1908, eventually working for the U.S. Biological Survey, which was then part of the Agriculture Dept. His job was to exterminate "nuisance" animals for the area ranchers/farmers. Birdseye used steel traps to kill wolves and coyotes; once trapped, the animals starved to death - it was even then a controversial method.
Those in the Survey knew that these animals didn't really present a threat to livestock, but they continued anyway, since that was what the Agriculture Dept. wanted. 
    Birdseye figured out how to make money with coyote furs by paying Natives fifty cents, which was twice their asking price. Once he had those furs, he sent them to NYC, and they were sold for $1.25 each. When he found something exotic, he always wondered what it would taste like, and which was the best method to cook the animal or plant. Birdseye was astounded to discover the reliance (addiction?) of Westerners to canned food from the East, but as it turned out, he loved the canned food as well. In 1910, Birdseye linked up part-time with the National Geographic Society (formed in 1888), and he explored, investigated new ideas, took photos, and didn't have to worry about politics . . . it was everything Birdseye loved.

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     During the Spring/Summer of 1910, Birdseye was in Montana, collecting ticks as part of a
medical project trying to figure out the cause of Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever. He was allowed unrestricted hunting of wildlife; in other words, there wasn't any limit for Birdseye in terms of shooting animals. It turned out that this job was VERY dangerous - it was the first formal scientific study of the disease, which killed 20% of those infected. The disease appeared and spread in the 1870s when the lumber industry exploded in the region. In 1889, a tick was discovered on a patient, and years later it was determined that Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever was caused by being bitten by a tick.
     Among the many new fields of study that burst upon the scene at the turn of the century was Entomology; in 1909, "Medical Entomology" took root in the Bitterroot Region of Montana, providing the first comprehensive study of ticks. The medical profession at large, as well as the locals, scoffed at these "Bug People", believing that there was no way ticks were the cause of a disease that was so deadly. A twenty-three year old Birdseye was among those that the Biological Survey sent to Montana in 1910. Few were willing to go since it was so dangerous in the field, especially in the Bitterroot Mountains. Birdseye killed about every type of mammal in the region, getting samples of ticks afterwards. As a result of Birdseye's work with two other men, it was proven that ticks caused the disease. Ticks fed on small animals, and worked their way up to larger ones, meaning it was a two-year cycle. It was determined that if a tick fed on a person for a few hours, it was very likely that a person would contract the disease.
    Ranchers refused to recognize the findings, due to the cost of using the recommended repellent. But in the end, there was no real solution other than to follow the Biological Survey's recommendations, since the source was identified, and a repellent developed; the disease vanished in the area as a result. But the dangerous work had to continue in 1911, and Birdseye returned to Montana; he eventually recommended that small animals, especially gophers, should be exterminated, leaving the large animals alone. What makes his recommendation somewhat ironic is that the Biological Survey eventually became the Fish & Wildlife Service, whose mission is to regulate protected environments.

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     The key moment in Birdseye's life occurred when he decided to go to the Labrador Coast in Canada. In 1912, Labrador was a wild and uncharted wilderness with ports that froze in the winter. People in Labrador could hunt and fish (except in the winter), but they had to import their fruits and vegetables. Birdseye joined the legendary Dr. Wilfred Grenfell's medical missions to assist fishermen in Labrador; by then, Grenfell was staying in Labrador during the long, brutal winters. In Grenfell, Birdseye found a fellow adventurer (twice his age) that also wanted to help people. Birdseye decided that while he was helping people in Labrador, he would also focus his attention to try and apply scientific knowledge in order to pursue an economic opportunity. So, Birdseye decided to trap silver foxes, and send them to the U.S. as breeding stock for starting a fur company. 
     Harris Hammond of Gloucester, Massachusetts, backed Birdseye with $750 ($18k today); it was the beginning of the Harris & Birdseye Fur Company. Birdseye procured foxes by traveling by dogsled weeks at a time; he learned about foxes and survival in the winter by asking questions of anyone he encountered. He specialized in sucking volumes of information from those that were even reluctant to provide answers. It was at about this time that Birdseye changed his first name to Bob - probably because Bob is more approachable than Clarence.
         (Below: A brief biography of Dr. Wilfred Grenfell)

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     Birdseye was an expert hunter, and he became an expert fisherman, as well as a de facto Corpsman acting on behalf of Dr. Grenfell. He learned as much as he could about wildlife in Labrador, whether an animal was alive or dead. He was also obsessed with food in Labrador; he had an endlessly curious palette, and the more exotic the food, the better (he especially loved seal meat). 
    In 1914, the fur industry collapsed in Europe and NYC, but Birdseye saw opportunity in America-at-large. He killed his current number of silver foxes, and purchased as many other furs as possible at the deflated prices due to the collapse of the industry after being staked $8000 ($185k today). He froze the small animals in snow for shipment, and in essence, he cornered the fur market in Labrador. In 1915, Birdseye went back home to marry Eleanor (they had been putting off marriage for awhile); he was twenty-nine years old. As it turned out, Birdseye would get his best ideas after marrying Eleanor, since he was thinking beyond himself and his needs.
     Birdseye (with Eleanor) went back to Labrador, and built a solid, three-room house, which would protect them in the long winters. He wanted his family (now with son Kellogg) to eat well, and he also needed to learn how to preserve food to feed his new silver foxes. His food concerns were of an immediate nature; he wasn't thinking (yet) of launching a new food industry.

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     In the Winter of 1916-1917, Birdseye had a full larder, filled with fruits and vegetables; but he needed a way to keep them fresh and edible. It was at this point in his life he became serious about the science of freezing food. Freezing food was nothing new in the mid-1910s, but very few people knew about the "Laws of Crystallization". As a result, when frozen food was thawed, it was pretty mushy, icky, and awful, and no one liked eating it at all. But, most frozen food in Labrador, when thawed, was not just adequate, it was close to fresh. 
     Birdseye spent months trying to figure out the mystery of the "Live Frozen Fish" of the area Natives; the fish that these Natives had frozen actually swam around normally when thawed. One of the things Birdseye noticed was that food wasn't as good if it was frozen early or late in the winter . . . finally he made the connection. When food was frozen instantly (e.g. when winter was at its coldest), it stayed fresh when it was thawed. He knew that it had something to do with the size of the crystals; salting food (the opposite of freezing) required large crystals, while freezing needed very small crystals . . . when food "Quick-Freezes", crystallization is at its smallest.
     In 1917, Birdseye went back to the U.S.; freezing food was on the "back-burner" in his mind. He started work for the U.S. Fisheries, trying to solve the problem of how to get fresh fish to far-away markets in good condition. If he could figure that out, people would eat more fish, and the industry would expand, as would his reputation as a problem-solver. After numerous failures, he remembered "Quick-Freezing" in Labrador.

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     In 1922, Birdseye left his job, and convinced an ice cream company to let him experiment in one of their freezer areas. Little did he know that America would be the birthplace of frozen food, while Europe would focus on smoking, salting, and canning food. What eventually aided Birdseye as well was that his efforts coincided with the development of electric refrigerators and freezers. But the bulk of refrigeration/freezing in 1922 still meant ice, and like electricity, America had "Democratized" ice . . . it was for everyone (in Europe, ice was still for the rich). Interestingly, Americans had to get "used" to artificial (man-made) ice, which occurred in 1890, due to an extraordinarily moderate winter . . . artificial ice had become the norm by the early-1920s.
     Frozen food already existed in the U.S., but most Americans gave it "Two Thumbs Down" for quality. Various methods of freezing food fast had been in tried for years in the fledgling frozen food industry. One method was to fast-freeze fish in salt and ice, which was sold in 1915, when Birdseye was in Labrador. The main reason why Birdseye didn't pursue frozen food earlier than he did was due to its horrible reputation with the American consumer.

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     In 1923, Birdseye created a company called Birdseye Seafoods in NYC; he tried chilling fish in fiberboard boxes, and . . . ICK! . . . At this point, he specifically started to apply his knowledge from Labrador. Fast-freezing had been around awhile, but no one had tried freezing food on a large scale. Birdseye estimated that meat/fish wasn't truly frozen unless it reached minus ninety-six degrees Fahrenheit, yet existing commercial freezers only went to twenty-five
degrees Fahrenheit. 
     Birdseye found that if he quickly reached twenty-two degrees Fahrenheit as fast as possible, small crystals formed around the food very quickly. He also found that smaller amounts of food froze (crystallized) faster and better than larger amounts (he would eventually freeze peas one at a time). In 1924, Birdseye took out a patent on his process, and by freezing one fish at a time, he had frozen fish on the market that same year. Despite all his advances and successes in the science of frozen food, Birdseye Seafoods went broke within a year; he just couldn't overcome the negative consumer opinions towards frozen food.

    Bob Birdseye had no way to realize that he was very close to a scientific and financial breakthrough in the world of frozen food. Before the end of the 1920s, he would create a company that would go on to make a bit of a mark in American history . . . General Foods.
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Alexander Hamilton: 1796 - 1804

8/9/2014

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            Source: Richard Brookhiser. Alexander Hamilton, American (1999)
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     If Alexander Hamilton was a Jedi Knight, he almost certainly would have opposed those that used the "Dark Side of the Force", which in his opinion included Thomas Jefferson, Aaron Burr, and to top it off, mankind in general. Hamilton was spared the passions of greed and rage, but he thought he saw it in others. Almost all of the Founding Fathers "poo-pooed" ambition (well, not Aaron Burr), believing that if they showed the ambition that they felt in every fiber of their being, it would be construed as a threat to the nation. Therefore, all of them felt it was their duty to "check" ambition in others. Hamilton, as well as the other Founding Fathers, feared "Caesarism", which was defined as unchecked ambition; in other words, ambition was equated with danger. Hamilton saw one person that not only seemed to be the most ambitious, but in addition had all of the worst combination of passions possible: Aaron Burr, of whom Hamilton labeled an "Embryo-Caesar." Complicating the landscape for Hamilton, et. al., was their passion of protecting their honor at virtually any cost; it was the era of the "Honor Culture."

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     Hamilton's last major service for President Washington was drafting/proofing his Farewell Address (pictured: The Farewell Address Wordle). Hamilton expanded on Madison's 1792 draft for Washington, and it was printed in newspapers on 19 September, 1796; in a way, the Farewell Address was the last collaboration between Hamilton and Madison (Washington made dozens of changes in Hamilton's draft, making the Address sound even more like him). Ironically, Hamilton, the Founding Father that wrote and spoke more than any other (with the possible exception of Franklin), did not write or talk about his service to Washington . . . it was one of the few things that Hamilton didn't talk about when there was at least one other person in his presence.
     Once it was confirmed that there would be a new President, passionate behind-the-scenes politicking occurred at the state level, which as a result of the Election of 1796, meant that the Federalist John Adams was President, and the Republican Thomas Jefferson was Vice-President. In so many ways, President John Adams was limited in what he could accomplish; among the reasons was his Cabinet. For obvious political reasons, Adams retained all of Washington's Cabinet, but that group was mediocre at best, and they were far more loyal to Hamilton than to the President. In Hamilton's mind, this was more-than-fine, in that he was able to "check" a fellow Federalist that had stated, years earlier, that certain aspects of monarchy may be desirable in America (Hamilton had campaigned hard in the Election of 1796 for Thomas Pinckney over John Adams, and it nearly cost Adams the Presidency).

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     During the Summer of 1797, newspaper publisher James Callendar (loyal to Jefferson), brought the "Reynolds Affair" back to public attention and scrutiny. Hamilton now had to publicly defend himself in order to remain politically relevant (he had privately done so with members of Congress a few years earlier), and stated that while he did indeed cheat on his wife, he didn't use any money from the Treasury to pay off his blackmailers. Hamilton believed that corruption was far more heinous than adultery, and that was the card he played. One of the ironic results of the resurrection of the "Reynolds Affair" was that James Monroe (one of the people to which Hamilton privately confessed) was so bent-out-of-shape by Hamilton's defense that he wanted to challenge Hamilton to a duel . . . but Aaron Burr calmed Monroe down, and the duel never occurred.
     In 1798, President John Adams signed into law the Alien and Sedition Acts; the Federalists felt more-than-justified in passing these restrictions due to the Whiskey Rebellion and the Genet Affair (basically, this was a brazen attempt by the Federalist Party to destroy Jefferson's and Madison's Republican Party). Due to recent tensions with France ("XYZ Affair") and the perceived internal threats, Washington was called to command an expanded U.S. Army (his commission took effect on 4 July, 1798). General Washington refused to leave Mount Vernon unless the U.S. was attacked, so the Second-in-Command would be the actual commanding officer, and there was quite the "Depth Chart" for that rank. Vying for that title/rank, among others, were Henry Knox, Charles Pinckney, and Alexander Hamilton. President Adams wanted to remove Hamilton from any consideration for that rank (revenge for 1796?), but for political reasons, had to keep him in play. Hamilton held some kind of rank in the Army for almost two years, and since there was no fighting, he became obsessed with the "little stuff" (e.g. marching formations, buttons on uniforms, etc.). After Washington's death in 1799, and the de-escalation of tensions with France, Congress downsized the Army in June, 1800; Hamilton was the officer that took care of the necessary details to carry out that Act of Congress.
(Below: A segment from the "John Adams" miniseries - President Adams and "2nd-in-Command" Hamilton")

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     In the months leading up to the Election of 1800, the Federalists were divided over President Adams' second peace mission to France. Hamilton wrote and circulated a pamphlet to SELECT Federalists, which called on them to unite in order to keep Thomas Jefferson from being elected President. Aaron Burr, a Republican, got a copy of the pamphlet, and circulated it EVERYWHERE. Burr also outmaneuvered Hamilton in the New York state legislature when it came to the state's Electoral Vote in 1800. The twelve Electoral Votes that went to Adams in 1796 now were in Thomas Jefferson's pocket (and Burr's as well, since he was TJ's VP candidate). 
     After all the Electoral Votes were counted, Jefferson and Burr were deadlocked at 73 votes each (the voter that had the honor of sending his Vice-Presidential Electoral Vote to someone other than Burr apparently forgot to do so). For the first time, the House of Representatives had to elect the President (each state's delegation votes, and each state counts as one total vote), and after the first ballot, Jefferson and Burr each had eight states.
    Aaron Burr's main problem was that he was a Narcissist (exceptional interest in or admiration of oneself); he was able to talk a good game, but following through was problematic . . . he was all interaction, with nothing at his core, and it would cost him dearly, starting at this point. General Washington was among the first to figure out that Burr was a Narcissist (Burr only lasted ten days as an aide to Washington), and Hamilton viewed Burr in much the same way. Hamilton took it further than Washington, however, in that he didn't want Burr to hold any major elected office at all. Hamilton not only viewed Burr as a Narcissist, but also as someone that could be a serious threat to the future of the U.S., and he wrote numerous letters to Delaware's only Representative, James Bayard, imploring him to change his vote from Burr to Jefferson. On the 36th ballot, James Bayard abstained, and Thomas Jefferson became the 3rd President (8 states to 7 for Burr); little did Burr realize that he had already reached the pinnacle of his political career.

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     To Hamilton, his arguments were the essence of his being; this was so much a part of him that he believed that failure to persuade threatened his existence. Among the topics in which he endeavored to persuade others was bullying, especially mobs (and those that organized and instigated mobs). He also equated other behavior with bullying, including intriguing, lying, and even silence; this behavior was among the reasons why there was a huge rift between Hamilton and Jefferson, and Hamilton and Burr. 
    According to Brookhiser (pictured), there are three modes of leadership: The highest is "Inspiration", which is also the most rare. Next is "Demonstration", which is sharing your reasons with everyone, and model appropriately. Last is "Flattery", which is all talk with little-or-no action; this type can lead to situations where the leader fools the followers, or worse yet, the leader and the followers are both fooled. "Flattery" usually occurs when the leader(s) and followers can't think of anything else to do (e.g. lack of vision). Hamilton rarely reached "Inspiration", and he refused to resort to "Flattery" - Hamilton was a "Demonstrator." Jefferson inhabited all three, but mostly he exhibited "Inspiration" (Declaration of Independence) and "Flattery", which further fueled the rift between Hamilton and Jefferson. Aaron Burr spent virtually his entire political life in "Flattery", which also explains much as to why Hamilton viewed Burr as a "dangerous man." 

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     America in the late-1700s / early-1800s was a rights-based society (much like the U.S. from 1946 - 1965), but Hamilton did not share his fellow citizens' confidence with the Bill of Rights. Hamilton placed far more value and reliance on British Common Law and Natural Law; in other words, Precedent and Theory meant more to Hamilton (remember, he was a very successful lawyer in New York City) than the specific liberties listed in the Bill of Rights.
     Specific applications for Hamilton's beliefs concentrated on contracts. Contracts were related to debt, which helped explain his plan as SecTreas to repay the massive Revolutionary War debts incurred by the government. According to Hamilton, special privileges were the hallmark of despots and slave-owners, while contracts were the handiwork of free men. In yet another reason for the chasm between Hamilton and others was that in a way, Jefferson, Madison, and Burr were "Born on 3rd Base", with a very short trip to "Home Plate". Hamilton, on the other hand, had to work his way around all the bases, and the key to his success was the contract. 
     Hamilton did not have a violent temper; his pride and stubbornness far exceeded any rage in his machine. What Hamilton had plenty of was ARDOR (enthusiasm, passion); he loved his ideas, his work, and family and friends. Like most of the other Founders, Hamilton also had the passion of lust, but he was the only Founding Father to freely admit his lust (to this day, Hamilton's admission of adultery remains the most frank among politicians). It must have galled Hamilton to no end that Jefferson denied any involvement with Sally Hemings, or Burr's continuous attendance at whorehouses, yet the media focused on Hamilton and Maria Reynolds, due to his candor.

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     In November, 1801, nineteen year-old Philip Hamilton died in a duel after being given advice by his father. Hamilton's advice: let your opponent fire first, then fire in the air, and by doing so, the affair of honor is over (it was actually a violation of the Irish Code Duello). Hamilton was consumed with depression and guilt; Hamilton's father was a deadbeat who abandoned his family, but he never gave lethal advice to his son.  
    Aaron Burr was struggling as well in late-1801; his (calculated?) indecision in the House phase of the Election of 1800 had cost him his political future; President Jefferson made sure that in the Republican Party, Vice-President Burr was persona non grata. Yet Burr was still seething with ambition, and he started to focus his political energies in New York state-level politics in an effort to re-start his career. 
     Hamilton's ambition had been ebbing away since he lost his high rank with the dissolution of most of the U.S. Army in the Summer of 1800, and the death of his son Philip in 1801, but he still distrusted Burr, and he basically made it his business to block Burr's efforts in their home state of New York. In 1804, Burr was a FEDERALIST candidate in the New York gubernatorial election; he used his many connections among prominent Federalist families to gain his spot on the ballot. However, Burr was soundly defeated, in part due to being associated with New England Federalists that wanted to secede from the Union, but also due to the tireless efforts of Hamilton's anti-Burr letter-writing campaign. Burr (remember, he was a Narcissist) in no way saw his situation as his fault, and President Jefferson was untouchable, so Burr started to focus on Hamilton as the reason for his political failure. The only one that was open about opposing Burr in the election was Hamilton, and dueling was considered an acceptable political weapon by many to restore one's reputation. Actually, in the "Honor Culture", it was very common for a losing candidate to challenge the winner to a duel; it was the only way to publicly save face and be "electable" in the future. However, almost all of those challenges were resolved long before they reached the stage of firing pistols on the "Field of Honor"; such was not the case with Burr and Hamilton . . .

     The question has been debated by historians for over two centuries: why did Hamilton go through with the duel when he hated the practice? Did Hamilton have a desire to be politically useful and relevant again; Brookhiser argued no, that his life had become somber - he was like a sinking fox pressed by a desperate old hound. It was more likely that Hamilton, due to extreme guilt and depression, had decided to pursue the same advice that he gave his son Philip, for better or for worse. And, if he could derail Burr's attempt at political resurrection, that would have certainly been an added bonus in his point of view.
    On 11 July, 1804, at Weehawken, New Jersey (the same site where Philip was killed), Vice-President Aaron Burr faced former Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton in the most famous duel in American History. We'll never know the true circumstances and sequence of the duel, but it's almost certain that both men fired at the same time. Hamilton's shot went high, clipping a cedar branch, while Burr's shot was mortal, hitting Hamilton in his abdomen. 
     Assuming that this duel was with light sabres instead of pistols, it could have been possible that Hamilton saw Philip off to the side, and decided to let Burr shoot him; maybe by his death he could thwart Vader's, I mean Burr's, efforts at political ascendancy. In the "Reynolds Affair", Hamilton chose to save his public life at the expense of his personal life, not once, but twice. In his duel with Burr, it's possible that Hamilton chose to risk his life in order to protect the nation from Burr. I would argue that if he had not been so depressed and consumed with guilt over the advice that he gave Philip almost three years before, he almost certainly would have figured out that one of his enemies, President Jefferson, had his Arch-Enemy, the Narcissist Burr, well-contained, and he was no real threat to anyone at all but himself. 
  (Below: A segment from "The Duel", from the flagship PBS documentary series "The American Experience";
                  it's one of the best documentaries I've ever seen about the Burr-Hamilton Duel)

The Duel from Mitch Wilson on Vimeo.

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Alexander Hamilton: The Man That Made Modern America

8/3/2014

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          Source: Richard Brookhiser. Alexander Hamilton, American (1999)
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     Among the Founding Fathers, Alexander Hamilton would probably be the only one that would recognize (and appreciate) modern America. His vision of a financially sound nation that produced and traded manufactured goods was in conflict with the vision of Thomas Jefferson, who envisioned a far more self-sufficient, pastoral nation. When Hamilton proposed a National Bank in late-1790, the creation of the first political parties became inevitable. Viewed not only as a threat to the nation, but to their way of life, Thomas Jefferson and James Madison spearheaded ferocious opposition to Hamilton's vision of what America should become. By 1795, the vast majority of Hamilton's Economic Plan had been enacted by Congress, and his Federalist Party dominated all three branches of the new federal government. Hamilton resigned as the first Secretary of the Treasury early that same year; always achievement-oriented, he felt that he had succeeded in establishing a sound foundation for America to flourish in the future.

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     Although Alexander Hamilton sometimes stated that he was a "Bastard Child From a Caribbean Whore", in actual fact, his mother was a good businesswoman on the island of St. Croix (southeast of what is now Puerto Rico). While her business affairs were in good order, she did face difficulty in her personal life. She remarried before her divorce was finalized, which created a social scandal on the small island. Ironically, Hamilton's father was a bum, walking out on his family, but only moving a few islands away, and never provided any assistance. 
     It was in this situation that Hamilton started working full-time as a nine year-old boy, in what would eventually be called a General Store. Hamilton so impressed his adult mentors that arrangements were made to send the teenage Hamilton to Princeton to study. Even at that age, Hamilton wrote responses (editorials) in newspapers that were well-received. When the Revolutionary War started, Hamilton volunteered, serving in Henry Knox's artillery regiment at Trenton and Princeton.

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     Two months after the victory at Princeton, Hamilton was promoted to Lt. Colonel, and joined General George Washington's official family. Being Washington's aide was demanding and exhausting - the General wanted people that were excellent administrators, but also the ability to solve problems on their own. To illustrate Hamilton's capabilities, he served as an aide to Washington for four years; Aaron Burr lasted ten days. In Washington, Hamilton, for the first time (and probably the only time) met a man greater than himself. Hamilton was quicker in terms of analysis and drawing proper conclusions, but in everything else, Washington was equal or better.
     Both Washington and Hamilton wanted order; the General wanted things done right, and Hamilton knew he was the man that could do everything the way Washington wanted. Before the Battle at Monmouth (1778), Hamilton's duties were administrative and in the battlefield, but after the battle, his duties became entirely administrative. In short, Hamilton was Washington's main conduit to all the groups outside the army, including the national legislature under the Articles of Confederation. By the end of the Revolutionary War, Hamilton saw pressing problems in the nation, the army, and Congress, and he started to think about how those problems could be solved.

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      In trying to find answers to those problems, Hamilton educated himself, especially with economic data and theory (unlike his future opposition, Jefferson & Madison). Ironically, both Hamilton and Madison wanted to expand the power of the national government, especially with a new Executive. But Hamilton was the one that studied markets and industry, and worked hard to try and figure out what worked in Europe. Among Hamilton's many conclusions was that Great Britain became a superpower due to the Bank of England; they were able to expand their economy at a tremendous rate due to financial organization and being able to issue loans.
     When Hamilton married Betsey Schuyler, he entered Upstate New York high society; people who viewed themselves as equal, or even superior, to any Planter in the South. In was often said in New York that the Clintons had the power, the Livingstons had the numbers, but the Schuylers had Hamilton. While Hamilton married into New York society, he was never really truly embraced, since he was an achiever, while the "Gentlemen" were simply "possessors". 

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     Hamilton was sent to the Congress of the Articles of Confederation as a representative from his district in New York; soon after arriving, he met a Virginia representative by the name of James Madison. Almost immediately they started to collaborate, and did so for the rest of the 1780s. There main difference during that decade was that Hamilton was driven by finding solutions to problems, while Madison was driven by theories.
     Hamilton developed a reputation in Congress as that of an impatient, impolitic reformer; his desire to achieve solutions to problems ran into a brick wall called "The Status Quo", and after eight months, he returned to New York to continue his law practice (while he was always in demand as a lawyer, he never got rich). Hamilton's desire for law and order was seen as he represented many former Loyalists in court, trying to reclaim their property under the Trespass Act.
     Before long, Hamilton was sent back to Congress, and he and Madison organized a convention to be held in Annapolis in 1786; problems over commerce was the stated reason for the convention. When only five of the twelve states convened in Annapolis (no enough for a quorum), Hamilton and Madison issued a statement that there would be another convention the following year in Philadelphia; Madison convinced Hamilton to reword part of that statement to read ". . . and adjust to the federal system."

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      Hamilton was one of three New York delegates at the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, 1787. However, the other two were loyal to George Clinton, and Hamilton was constantly out-voted 2-1 in the New York Delegation. He felt that he had no impact on the agenda for the convention: he disliked both the Virginia and New Jersey Plans, but was powerless to say or do anything of consequence. Also, his idea of an "Elected Monarch" as the new Executive went nowhere; in short, he left the convention because was didn't feel that he was allowed to be a full participant.
     While Hamilton was in Philadelphia, Madison agreed with him that state debts from the Revolutionary War should be "assumed" by the new government - for political reasons a few years later, Madison will completely change his stand on the issue of "Assumption". Both also agreed that the idea of "Assumption" should stay in the background, and not even be debated on the floor of the convention. Hamilton was the only New Yorker to sign the Constitution on 17 September, 1787; Clinton had basically recalled his two men after getting reports that the national government would likely change. 

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     While Hamilton was at best a minor supporting character at the Constitutional Convention, he would run point during Ratification; his main problem was to get the state of New York to ratify the document in the face of stout opposition from George Clinton. Hamilton turned to the press, writing over twenty Federalist Essays, and then enlisting the help of James Madison to join the battle. In reading the Federalist Essays from Hamilton and Madison, it seemed that future disagreement would have been impossible. But they had their own points-of-view on certain topics: Madison wanted to block tyranny, while Hamilton focused on the potential greatness of the nation under the Constitution. 
     During the Ratifying Convention in New York, Hamilton employed a Madisonian strategy of analyzing each clause of the Constitution, while arguing it merits. Hamilton's arguments did indeed change some votes; the New York convention voted 30-27 to ratify the Constitution.

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     To President George Washington, the only choice for the first Secretary of the Treasury was his former trusted military aide, Alexander Hamilton. Washington also named Henry Knox (his artillery officer) as SecWar, and fellow Virginian Edmund Randolph as Attorney General. The only member of Washington's Cabinet that Hamilton did not know was SecState Thomas Jefferson, fourteen years his senior. Jefferson's "pedigree" of a Virginia Squire ruffled Hamilton's feathers; merit and achievement were the true mark of a man according to Hamlton, not his origin. 
     SecTreas Hamilton determined that the key to Great Britain's greatness was the Bank of England, which in issuing loans was able to influence the "Velocity of Money", and expand the economy, and their empire. Hamilton also concluded that a nation can thrive if it is in debt, but only if the debt is manageable, and the nation has great standing in terms of credit. As Hamilton would discover, opposition to forming a national bank was based mostly on economic ignorance, and fear of losing state-level control (and a certain standard-of-living).
     The Treasury department was by far the largest, and most difficult to run, segment of the Executive Branch in the early years of the Constitution. Hamilton worked FAR harder than Jefferson at his Cabinet post; State was a far more leisurely endeavor. Hamilton needed to establish procedures & precedents for the Treasury; the other three Cabinet level departments had no such dilemma. 

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     On 14 January, 1790, Hamilton issued his "Report on Credit"; he wanted to re-establish America's foreign and domestic credit. The U.S. was in debt to Revolutionary War veterans, speculators, states, foreign nations, and European banks (especially Dutch banks). Hamilton wanted to issue securities, which he believed would provide immediate revenue to repay debts, and increase the level of trust among citizens for the new government. Hamilton wanted to lift the U.S. economy by creating capital (the word was not yet used that way), and the best way to create that capital was to issue securities (citizens loaning money to the government). 
     In order to repay the domestic debt to veterans, Hamilton proposed to pay fifty cents on the dollar: if a person presented $10 in Continental Dollars, he would receive $5 in new currency. It was impossible to keep word of that plan secret, and hordes of speculators roamed the countryside, offering to buy Continental currency for ten cents on the dollar. At about the same time, Hamilton released his plan of "Assumption", in which the federal government would take over state debts (the vast majority of the states were in deep debt due to the war).
     Madison opposed Hamilton on both issues, further stating that only the original holder of the Continental Dollars should be paid, not the unscrupulous speculators (even though in the 1780s he had the opposite position on both issues . . . Virginia politics of the early-1790s was the reason for his reversal). Madison wanted to cripple "Assumption" in the House by including all state debts, those that had been paid, and those that had not (Virginia would be "in the black" as a result), gambling that the amount would be too much for his colleagues to support.
     Faced with organized opposition for the first time in his life, Hamilton responded with his best political move of his career. At a very small dinner party, hosted by Jefferson, Hamilton agreed to support a future capital city on the Potomac River. In response, Madison would vote against "Assumption" to save political face, but he and Jefferson would work behind-the-scenes to secure its passage. In effect, Hamilton sacrificed his state of New York (NYC was the current capital) in order to advance his vision of a financially-secure United States.

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     Alexander Hamilton officially called for the formation of a National Bank in December, 1790, citing numerous advantages in his statement. He proposed raising $10m in initial capital (the total of all U.S. banks was $2m), $8m from investors, and the remaining $2m from various revenues (e.g. tariffs). The Bank Bill easily passed the Senate, but ran into stout opposition with James Madison in the House; he raised the question of whether-or-not the Bank was Constitutional. Madison reversed himself once again from his views during the 1780s; one of his fears was that Philadelphia would become the permanent national capital, despite the Potomac agreement. Hamilton argued that the National Bank was not only Constitutional, but it would also be able to provide money quickly in an emergency, or for the national military. Hamilton's arguments overwhelmed the Madison faction, the House passed the Bank Bill, and Washington signed it into law (it was informally-yet-universally understood that the capital would be on the Potomac). 
     Hamilton released his "Report on Manufactures" in December, 1791, which provided another opportunity to communicate his idealized industrial vision for America. Hamilton relied heavily on Tench Coxe, the new Deputy SecTreas (the first, William Duer, had fallen from Hamilton' graces); to Hamilton and Coxe, industry represented national salvation. Hamilton argued that industry would enhance and support agriculture (a win-win), and would also increase individual enterprise and initiative. Money for all this manufacturing would come from domestic banks (especially the National Bank) and foreign investors. Paterson, New Jersey became the test-center for this industrial vision - it was none other than Hamilton's Showcase (a water-powered plant near Monmouth)

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     The second-half of 1791 was not all wine-and-roses for Hamilton. Hamilton was tremendously gullible when dealing with attractive young women, as the "Reynold's Affair" showed. Maria Reynolds claimed to be a New Yorker from a prominent family who: a) Needed money, and; b) Was afraid of her husband. The gullible SecTreas not only loaned her money (personal, not from the Treasury), but also "visited" Mrs. Reynolds over the next several weeks. Hamilton was being blackmailed: Maria was a whore, her husband was a pimp, and they were conspirators in extorting money and patronage from the Secretary of the Treasury . . . the nation would learn of this affair soon enough.
     On other matters, the SecTreas knew what he was doing. In settling debts by issuing securities, he solidified the nation's credit, which allowed industry to develop. The economy would generate revenue that would fund the pay-back of those securities, with interest. This cycle would be repeated again-and-again, expanding America's economy, and increasing the overall standard of living. While there was significant opposition to Hamilton's "Scheme", the votes were simply not in existence in either house to block his financial/industrial program.
     The National Bank was an entirely different matter, in part due to the reality that the Bank could change the national landscape almost immediately to the benefit of some, and to the detriment of others. The debate over the National Bank was the crisis that led to the creation of political parties (Federalists & Republicans). As stated earlier, Hamilton had never experienced this level of organized opposition, as orchestrated by Jefferson and Madison. Hamilton's Economic Plan was to the detriment of the Planters, who were accustomed to living in luxury by running up huge debts that they never really had to pay-off. In short, Southern Planters were afraid that they would lose their power and wealth in their state / region. Some Northerners opposed Hamilton as well, since there was a huge level of inherent distrust with banks in America.

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     The "Rupture" occurred in April, 1791 during a Cabinet meeting that took place without President Washington. In attendance were SecTreas Hamilton, SecState Jefferson, SecWar Knox, and V.P. John Adams. After listening to Hamilton's arguments in defense of the National Bank, Jefferson concluded that the Banks would be a clone of Great Britain's, and therefore a threat to the nation. It was at this point that Jefferson, by his own admission, started the "Newspaper War" in 1792 that further polarized the fledgling political parties. 
     Hamilton's foreign birth also complicated things at this point; Jefferson's minions in the press concluded that only a "Low-Born" (Hamilton) would stoop to corruption in service of the public. As a result, there was no way Hamilton and Jefferson could work together in any meaningful or productive manner, due to their competing ambitions, vision, origin, and base characteristics (e.g. Hamilton was achievement-driven, Jefferson less so). 
     The year 1792 featured more problems for SecTreas Hamilton. His former Deputy SecTreas, William Duer (corrupt to his core; Hamilton refused to enable him) was sentenced to debtor's prison. Jefferson and Madison pounced on that event, claiming that if Duer was corrupt, then Hamilton must be as well. Jefferson's main newspaper publisher / pitbull, William Freneau, featured constant attacks on Hamilton, to which Hamilton obviously felt the need to respond.
A quote from a personal letter that Jefferson sent to Washington, complaining about Hamilton, was telling: "A man whose history, from the moment history stooped to notice him, is a tissue of machinations against the liberty of the country." This quote is telling, not only showing that Jefferson was a "Virginia Squire Snob", but also that he didn't consider Hamilton a fellow Founding Father, due in part to his Caribbean origin. 

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     In December, 1792, three members of Congress visited Hamilton about his involvement with Maria Reynolds (remember her?), including Senator James Monroe (by now a protege of both Jefferson and Madison). When confronted with the evidence (both anecdotal and written), Hamilton freely admitted the affair. In essence, Hamilton chose to protect his public life at the expense of his private life (namely, his wife, Betsey). The good news for Hamilton was that the three members of Congress believed Hamilton, and strongly advised Jefferson to let the matter rest, at least for the present . . . the affair would become public knowledge, but not due (directly) to Jefferson.
     In January, 1793, a Congressional investigation commenced, trying to prove that Hamilton had defrauded the Treasury (Jefferson & Madison figured they might as well attack his public life). Congress demanded a full accounting of the Treasury during its first three-and-a-half years of existence. In only four weeks, Hamilton responded in great detail, and exposed the opposition's ignorance of finance, as well as their political bias. Congress kept investigating Hamilton nonetheless; the investigations didn't stop until he resigned as SecTreas in 1795.
     The entire political tone in America changed for the worse in 1793, featuring actual conflict on many fronts. The French Revolution divided Americans - there were riots and privateers galore, much of which was caused by the actions of the French Ambassador Edmund Charles Genet. The Federalists supported Britain, while the Republicans supported France; it seemed that any opposition to one's views was tantamount to treason.

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      The largest armed uprising before the Civil War occurred in Western Pennsylvania in 1794: The Whiskey Rebellion. Among the causes of the revolt was Hamilton's excise tax on whiskey, from which he anticipated quite a bit of revenue for the federal government. Among the "political" rebels (there were nasty "radical" rebels as well) was Congressman Albert Gallatin, who ironically would become SecTreas in the early-1800s, and would distinguish himself in that capacity. Fortunately for Gallatin and the other "political" rebels, Hamilton had concluded that they did not commit any crimes against the federal government . . . but that wasn't the case with the "radical" rebels, who physically took up arms and marched on Pittsburgh. 
     President Washington ended the revolt with an offer of amnesty, after leading a few thousand militiamen far enough west to intimidate the rebel leadership; he turned over command to Hamilton, and returned East. Shortly after the Whiskey Rebellion, Hamilton notified Washington that he would resign as SecTreas early in 1795. He felt he had accomplished as much as he possibly could, especially after the Whisky Rebellion established the precedent that the federal government could and would enforce their own laws. Also, his family finances dictated that he return to his profitable law practice in New York City.

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     In 1795, Great Britain issued the "Orders of Council" which in essence turned back the clock to the days of Mercantilism: the British started to confiscate U.S. ships that were suspected of heading towards France. British captains that did so were de facto privateers, since they were able to keep a large quantity of what they confiscated. Adding humiliation to injury, the British also still held ten forts in the Northwest (e.g. Fort Detroit), and were able to monopolize the lucrative fur trade. Washington needed to send a diplomat of stature to try and negotiate improved relations with Britain, and although many thought Hamilton would be the special envoy, Washington instead sent John Jay (he thought Jay was a better choice, and would be far-more diplomatic than Hamilton). Interestingly, Hamilton was tasked with drawing up Jay's instructions as the special envoy, which Jay made sure his counterpart was aware (Hamilton was very much admired in most of the circles of British government). 

     The Jay Treaty came back to the U.S. in March, 1795 (negotiations had actually started before the Whiskey Rebellion); even the Federalists didn't like most of the treaty . . . at best, Britain "promised" to do certain things; at least war with Britain was avoided. Washington turned to his former SecTreas for advice and assistance in trying to get the Senate to ratify the Jay Treaty. Once again, Hamilton's essays supporting and analyzing the Jay Treaty dampened enough of the opposition where it was ratified without a vote to spare (20-10) in the Senate, and signed by President Washington.
     Hamilton was assailed (verbally and even physically) at mob protests in New York City against the Jay Treaty; Hamilton never quite figured out that it was impossible to talk some sense into a mob. Hyper-Passion was in fashion, and angry mobs became the norm. In terms of politics, it seemed that everyone had lowered himself after 1793; among the few that hadn't resorted to that "lowering" was Hamilton. 
     That was the Hamilton as of 1795; a very different Alexander Hamilton would surface in the following years, he was influential in determining the the outcomes of two Presidential elections, and he would be a participant in America's most famous duel . . . 
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