Source: Erik Larson. Dead Wake - The Last Crossing of the Lusitania (2015)
The Great War had already lasted for ten months, longer than anyone could have believed. Despite that, the Lusitania was fully booked with passengers for its next voyage across the Atlantic, from New York City to Liverpool, on 1 May 1915. On total number on board would almost reach 2000, with 1265 of them passengers, including a larger-than-expected number of children and babies. Fully loaded, the Lusitania could reach 25 knots (30 mph), making the ship the fastest civilian vessel in the world at the time; only destroyers could exceed that speed, and such battleships as the Queen Elizabeth.
From the Lusitania’s first voyage in 1907, the ship was the pride of Great Britain. In keeping with Cunard Line tradition, the name Lusitania was from an ancient land, a Roman province in the Iberian Peninsula. The beautiful colossus was a very high maintenance passenger ship, especially in the 1st Class sections. In general, something was always breaking or malfunctioning, such as an exploding baking oven, frozen-and-ruptured water pipes in the winter, and lightbulbs that failed at an alarming rate. All that being said, the famous/beloved ship had crossed the Atlantic 201 times by 1 May 1915.
From the Lusitania’s first voyage in 1907, the ship was the pride of Great Britain. In keeping with Cunard Line tradition, the name Lusitania was from an ancient land, a Roman province in the Iberian Peninsula. The beautiful colossus was a very high maintenance passenger ship, especially in the 1st Class sections. In general, something was always breaking or malfunctioning, such as an exploding baking oven, frozen-and-ruptured water pipes in the winter, and lightbulbs that failed at an alarming rate. All that being said, the famous/beloved ship had crossed the Atlantic 201 times by 1 May 1915.
Captain William Turner, age 58, was in command of the Lusitania for the third time, since Cunard liked to rotate its captains on passenger ships. Turner had the reputation in the Cunard Line as the best captain for the largest ships, since so much attention to detail was required. Turner set a record on the Mauretania (the sister ship of the Lusitania) in 1910 when he piloted the ship from NUC and back in 14 days.
Around 5700 tons of coal had to be shoveled into the “side pockets” of the Lusitania. The ship burned coal at all times, consuming 140 tons a day when docked, kind of like an idling engine in a car. When underway, the Lusitania consumed 1000 tons of coal a day in 192 furnaces that heated 25 boilers, all from 300 stokers, in order to turn the massive turbines. The 25 boilers had to be monitored at all times, since each could explode, tearing a large hole in the ship.
Coal dust migrated everywhere on board. Stewards had to constantly dust surfaces that could collect the soot. Coal dust, if concentrated, was highly explosive, meaning that was potential catastrophe belowdecks. Members of the crew were prohibited from bringing their own matches onboard, required instead to use the ship’s safety matches that would only work if struck against a chemically-treated surface outside the box.
Around 5700 tons of coal had to be shoveled into the “side pockets” of the Lusitania. The ship burned coal at all times, consuming 140 tons a day when docked, kind of like an idling engine in a car. When underway, the Lusitania consumed 1000 tons of coal a day in 192 furnaces that heated 25 boilers, all from 300 stokers, in order to turn the massive turbines. The 25 boilers had to be monitored at all times, since each could explode, tearing a large hole in the ship.
Coal dust migrated everywhere on board. Stewards had to constantly dust surfaces that could collect the soot. Coal dust, if concentrated, was highly explosive, meaning that was potential catastrophe belowdecks. Members of the crew were prohibited from bringing their own matches onboard, required instead to use the ship’s safety matches that would only work if struck against a chemically-treated surface outside the box.
Since the Admiralty had heavily subsidized the Lusitania and the Mauretania, they were designed, in effect, to be auxiliary heavy cruisers. For example, the coal bunkers were “longitudinal”, like in battleships. Basically, these were “coal tunnels” on both sides of the hull, designed for speedy delivery of coal to the furnaces in the boiler rooms. At the time the ships were built (1903 - 1907), naval warfare was above the waterline (reading no submarines or torpedoes), and the coal tunnels served as kind of a shield below the waterline, protecting the boilers and steam lines. The Admiralty originally “drafted” the Lusitania for service in the Royal Navy, but the ship burned so much coal that it was relegated for civilian use. The Lusitania was a passenger ship, but it had the hull of a battleship.
Turner despised the social side of being a captain for Cunard, viewing passengers as “Bloody Monkeys”, chattering all the time. Turner preferred to dine in his quarters than holding court at the head of the table in the 1st Class dining room. Thankfully, in 1913 Cunard created a position of “Staff Captain”, which performed the social niceties, unburdening Turner. Under Captain Turner, the Lusitania broke all the speed records, much to Germany’s dismay, having been the leader of the pack in that department for the previous six years. By 1 May 1915, Turner was the “Commodore of Cunard”, the company’s most seasoned (and talented?) captain.
Turner despised the social side of being a captain for Cunard, viewing passengers as “Bloody Monkeys”, chattering all the time. Turner preferred to dine in his quarters than holding court at the head of the table in the 1st Class dining room. Thankfully, in 1913 Cunard created a position of “Staff Captain”, which performed the social niceties, unburdening Turner. Under Captain Turner, the Lusitania broke all the speed records, much to Germany’s dismay, having been the leader of the pack in that department for the previous six years. By 1 May 1915, Turner was the “Commodore of Cunard”, the company’s most seasoned (and talented?) captain.
Fog was perhaps the one thing that truly worried Turner, since it was unpredictable. In order to successfully get out from under fog, very careful navigation and luck were required. Due to unexpected fog, large ships had sunk, with many lives lost. Turner was an expert at precise navigation, having proved himself again and again in that arena with large liners. The Cunard Line had a tremendous safety record, with zero deaths attributed to the company or the captains, excepting natural deaths on board, of course. The Lusitania boasted the lastest safety equipment, including the best lifejackets made to the point (the “Boddy”). The Great War had made the matter of passenger safety all the more important, even though it had become common practice to carry munitions as part of the regular cargo heading back to Liverpool.
One aspect of the Lusitania that made it an unmistakable passenger ship was that it was the only one with four funnels; everyone recognized the Lusitania when they saw it. At the start of the Great War, the submarine wasn’t a player, since it didn’t figure in any nation’s strategic plans. No one in power believed that submarines could do that much damage. However, events on 22 September 1914 changed that perception. U-9 (U-Boat #9) had fired several torpedoes sinking three antiquated-but-fairly-large British ships, killing 1000. What contributed to the sinking of those three large British ships were the longitudinal coal bunkers, since once they were ruptured, a catastrophic imbalance between the two sides of the ship occurred.
One aspect of the Lusitania that made it an unmistakable passenger ship was that it was the only one with four funnels; everyone recognized the Lusitania when they saw it. At the start of the Great War, the submarine wasn’t a player, since it didn’t figure in any nation’s strategic plans. No one in power believed that submarines could do that much damage. However, events on 22 September 1914 changed that perception. U-9 (U-Boat #9) had fired several torpedoes sinking three antiquated-but-fairly-large British ships, killing 1000. What contributed to the sinking of those three large British ships were the longitudinal coal bunkers, since once they were ruptured, a catastrophic imbalance between the two sides of the ship occurred.
During the Fall/Winter of 1914, the U-Boats became a much larger focus of attention for Germany, and very soon U-Boats were used against merchant ships. Germany’s intent was to try and stop the flow of supplies and weapons to Great Britain from the United States. In New York City newspapers, Germany ran a full page notice, stating it intention of attacking non-military vessels that entered the war zone between Ireland and Britain. An additional reason for doing so was that Britain had commonly used false-flags to try and confuse Germany; President Woodrow Wilson’s top advisor, Colonel Edward House, had been on one of those ships. Germany seemed blind to the difference that Britain confiscated cargoes, but U-Boats sank/killed.
On 10 February 1915, President Woodrow Wilson proclaimed his outrage of Germany U-Boat strategy, and that the US would take any steps necessary if Americans were killed. However, the U-Boat true-believers in the German navy dismissed Wilson as irrelevant, focusing it efforts on intensifying attacks in order to crush Britain before the US could join the war. Kaiser Wilhelm II authorized tactics that allowed U-Boats to remain submerged and attack with no warning. That meant that U-Boat captains decided which ships to sink, to leave alone, which meant that a captain in his 20s and 30s could make a mistake that would alter the course of the Great War.
On 10 February 1915, President Woodrow Wilson proclaimed his outrage of Germany U-Boat strategy, and that the US would take any steps necessary if Americans were killed. However, the U-Boat true-believers in the German navy dismissed Wilson as irrelevant, focusing it efforts on intensifying attacks in order to crush Britain before the US could join the war. Kaiser Wilhelm II authorized tactics that allowed U-Boats to remain submerged and attack with no warning. That meant that U-Boat captains decided which ships to sink, to leave alone, which meant that a captain in his 20s and 30s could make a mistake that would alter the course of the Great War.