Source: Les Payne. The Dead Are Arising - The Life of Malcolm X (2020)
By 1955, Malcolm X was 30 years old, and his charm instilled a steely resolve in men, and titillated women. For the time-being, Malcolm X was still celebrated in NOI HQ, because he was bringing in recruits and a lot of revenue, while also running the Harlem temple and overseeing the temples in Boston and Philadelphia. Malcolm X was also looking for “emerging markets” for the NOI in such locations as Springfield (MA) and Hartford (CT).
Relevant demographics for Hartford: From 1940 to 1960, the white population in Hartford had increased by 44%, while the African-American population increased 229%. Rosalie Bey Glover, a mother of nine, was one of those African-American migrants to Hartford. Soon after the Brown Decision in 1954, she started to visit Springfield whenever Malcolm X preached, and during one of those trips, she invited him to Hartford. By 1955, Mrs. Glover had become entirely disenchanted with white Christians (and most African-American Christians as well), due to her experiences in Florida. Mrs. Glover wasn’t a fan of EM, but she was a total fan of Malcolm X, and she also wanted to rub EM’s nose in the fact that he had failed to establish a NOI temple in Hartford years before. Unlike EM, Malcolm understood the mentality of New Englanders, both white and African-American, due to his time in Boston.
Relevant demographics for Hartford: From 1940 to 1960, the white population in Hartford had increased by 44%, while the African-American population increased 229%. Rosalie Bey Glover, a mother of nine, was one of those African-American migrants to Hartford. Soon after the Brown Decision in 1954, she started to visit Springfield whenever Malcolm X preached, and during one of those trips, she invited him to Hartford. By 1955, Mrs. Glover had become entirely disenchanted with white Christians (and most African-American Christians as well), due to her experiences in Florida. Mrs. Glover wasn’t a fan of EM, but she was a total fan of Malcolm X, and she also wanted to rub EM’s nose in the fact that he had failed to establish a NOI temple in Hartford years before. Unlike EM, Malcolm understood the mentality of New Englanders, both white and African-American, due to his time in Boston.
Malcolm X asked EM for permission to at least explore the possibility of establishing a NOI temple in Hartford, and EM gave him permission to do so, while also telling him it was a waste of time. Since Hartford had dismissed EM out-of-hand in the 1940s, he believed that Malcolm X would get the same reception, and that challenge was not lost on Malcolm X. When Malcolm X addressed those assembled in Mrs. Glover’s living room, he was strict but not intimidating, which was the right way to approach that specific audience in Hartford. Malcolm X had come to realize that African-Americans that served whites tended to be very receptive to his lectures (e.g. “No man is a hero to his valet”).
Malcolm X started to regularly address groups in Hartford every Thursday, and it was after the second such Thursday that an FBI agent stopped an African-American teen that had been to a meeting, asking questions about what had been going on in Mrs. Glover’s house. Unlike in Philadelphia, Malcolm X knew that he couldn’t be too harsh with his rhetoric in Hartford, and he basically ignored EM’s mysticism. Malcolm X badly wanted to succeed in Hartford, knowing that the potential recruits needed milk, not meat, in terms of digesting the tenets of the NOI.
Malcolm X had to ignore the cigarette smoking in Mrs. Glover’s living room, as well as pork chops (he refused when offered), which severely tested his patience. Persevering, Malcolm X’s called for African-American resistance to white oppression that best resonated in Hartford, far more than any religious angles. Malcolm X knew it would be the socio-political message, not the religious, that would attract recruits in Hartford.
Malcolm X started to regularly address groups in Hartford every Thursday, and it was after the second such Thursday that an FBI agent stopped an African-American teen that had been to a meeting, asking questions about what had been going on in Mrs. Glover’s house. Unlike in Philadelphia, Malcolm X knew that he couldn’t be too harsh with his rhetoric in Hartford, and he basically ignored EM’s mysticism. Malcolm X badly wanted to succeed in Hartford, knowing that the potential recruits needed milk, not meat, in terms of digesting the tenets of the NOI.
Malcolm X had to ignore the cigarette smoking in Mrs. Glover’s living room, as well as pork chops (he refused when offered), which severely tested his patience. Persevering, Malcolm X’s called for African-American resistance to white oppression that best resonated in Hartford, far more than any religious angles. Malcolm X knew it would be the socio-political message, not the religious, that would attract recruits in Hartford.
During a Thursday meeting, Malcolm X brought up the murder of Emmett Till (28 August 1955), and Mrs. Glover broke down in tears, telling those assembled about her nightmare in FL that drove her to come to Hartford. An innocent African-American young man (A.C. Williams) had been taken from jail (like Will Brown, he had been falsely accused of rape), and was beaten and shot. He actually survived, and worked his way back home, and then was taken to Mrs. Glover’s home, where she naively called the police. The sheriff arrested the African-American man on the spot, never dealing with those that kidnapped and attempted to murder him, and sent him in an ambulance to Tallahassee. That ambulance was forced off the road by members of the KKK, and his body was displayed on a bridge in 1941. This example was just one of the far too many instances, even in the North, where the vague charge of “Attempt to Assault” led to an arrest, and lynching (or spectacle lynching).
Malcolm X treated Hartford as his most precious jewel, thinking that if he succeeded, he would be 100% accepted and solidified in the NOI, especially in Chicago. In part, Malcolm X wanted the achievement, but he also wanted praise from EM. In short, Malcolm X viewed Hartford as his defining moment.
Another level Malcolm X was able to push was racist covenants. African-Americans had been locked out of the growing suburbs, and Malcolm X wasted little time telling those assembled what happened to his family in Omaha, Milwaukee, and Lansing. Even though the Supreme Court had ruled that racist covenants were illegal, localities kept up the practice, triple-dog-daring the federal government to make them stop. Malcolm X pointed out the injustice, but he provided no solutions, believing that was the job of such organizations as the NAACP.
Malcolm X treated Hartford as his most precious jewel, thinking that if he succeeded, he would be 100% accepted and solidified in the NOI, especially in Chicago. In part, Malcolm X wanted the achievement, but he also wanted praise from EM. In short, Malcolm X viewed Hartford as his defining moment.
Another level Malcolm X was able to push was racist covenants. African-Americans had been locked out of the growing suburbs, and Malcolm X wasted little time telling those assembled what happened to his family in Omaha, Milwaukee, and Lansing. Even though the Supreme Court had ruled that racist covenants were illegal, localities kept up the practice, triple-dog-daring the federal government to make them stop. Malcolm X pointed out the injustice, but he provided no solutions, believing that was the job of such organizations as the NAACP.
Malcolm X made it very plain: the behavior of the “white devil” needed to be forced to change, but that could only begin when African-Americans changed their mindset towards whites. He also argued that African-Americans had to change their mindset about themselves as well, which was the key to unlocking the gates blocking upward mobility. Malcolm X stated that EM wanted separation, not integration. Malcolm X was up against a large obstacle, in that Hartford was an “oasis” for African-Americans compared to most other areas in the US, and it was a hard-sell for Hartford African-Americans to buy into the white man is the “blue eyed devil” point-of-view. However, Malcolm X’s charisma was strong, in many cases overcoming the resistance of potential recruits.
Malcolm X was very clear about self-defense being the way to go, and he basically mocked nonviolent protests as cowardly. Malcolm X outlined the role of the Fruit of Islam, which was to react in kind, which appealed to the men on those Thursday evening meetings. In effect, Malcolm X was creating his own version of a NOI temple in Hartford, using what he knew was palatable from EM, and mixing in what he knew would work in Hartford, featuring self-defense and self-help (economic uplift). Malcolm X knew he didn’t need 100% buy-in to be successful in Hartford, since he mentioned many facets of the NOI, and a Harford recruit only had to be interested in one. Many attendees had experienced the toxic blending of religion, racism, and terror from Southern whites, and for those that didn’t have those experiences, Malcolm X’s rhetoric of fellowship, redemption, moral discipline, and social/economic uplift was captivating.
Malcolm X was very clear about self-defense being the way to go, and he basically mocked nonviolent protests as cowardly. Malcolm X outlined the role of the Fruit of Islam, which was to react in kind, which appealed to the men on those Thursday evening meetings. In effect, Malcolm X was creating his own version of a NOI temple in Hartford, using what he knew was palatable from EM, and mixing in what he knew would work in Hartford, featuring self-defense and self-help (economic uplift). Malcolm X knew he didn’t need 100% buy-in to be successful in Hartford, since he mentioned many facets of the NOI, and a Harford recruit only had to be interested in one. Many attendees had experienced the toxic blending of religion, racism, and terror from Southern whites, and for those that didn’t have those experiences, Malcolm X’s rhetoric of fellowship, redemption, moral discipline, and social/economic uplift was captivating.
Malcolm X created a barracks-like dormitory cocoon, which was almost cult-like. Hartford didn’t have the big-city attractions for potential distractions/defections, so Malcolm X knew the cocoon would keep the focus intact. The main rule in the barracks was that all men must work, and their behavior was monitored (e.g. no drinking, smoking, etc.); women were not allowed in the barracks. Malcolm X visited the barracks often, and spoke more about his background, going into his criminal activities in order to show what the NOI could do for them if they followed the tenets; and he always gave credit to “the Honorable Elijah Muhammad”.
What became a common pattern in the African-American male recruits was that they became proud of being an African-American, and most gave Malcolm X credit for seeing themselves as a man for the first time in their lives. Malcolm X’s success in Hartford emboldened him to ask EM for permission to, in effect, “revitalize” the temples in Detroit and Chicago. Malcolm X was oblivious to the already simmering and festering resentment towards him, not only in Chicago, but in the other original NOI temples.
What became a common pattern in the African-American male recruits was that they became proud of being an African-American, and most gave Malcolm X credit for seeing themselves as a man for the first time in their lives. Malcolm X’s success in Hartford emboldened him to ask EM for permission to, in effect, “revitalize” the temples in Detroit and Chicago. Malcolm X was oblivious to the already simmering and festering resentment towards him, not only in Chicago, but in the other original NOI temples.
Malcolm X was trying to make himself indispensable in the NOI, something he had a habit of doing, even back in his “Sandwich Red” days. Everytime Malcolm X visited Chicago, EM chastened him, saying that he was moving too fast . . . Malcolm X thought EM was moving far too slow. EM was too narrow-minded, provincial, and uneducated to keep up with Malcolm X’s far more open-minded ambitions to make the NOI a truly national organization.
The FBI was fully aware of the discord between Malcolm X and EM, and tried to find ways to exacerbate the fissure between the two. Malcolm X was totally unaware of the FBI surveillance on him as well as his communications with Chicago. Malcolm X’s efforts in Hartford, however, paid off, with EM granting temple status for Hartford (Temple #14). Towards the end of 1956, Malcolm X wrote EM that the East Coast, despite many challenges, was going well, and in the letter he used the phrase “but overall the dead there are rising” . . .
The FBI was fully aware of the discord between Malcolm X and EM, and tried to find ways to exacerbate the fissure between the two. Malcolm X was totally unaware of the FBI surveillance on him as well as his communications with Chicago. Malcolm X’s efforts in Hartford, however, paid off, with EM granting temple status for Hartford (Temple #14). Towards the end of 1956, Malcolm X wrote EM that the East Coast, despite many challenges, was going well, and in the letter he used the phrase “but overall the dead there are rising” . . .