Source: Robert W. Merry. A Country of Vast Designs - James K. Polk,
the Mexican War, and the Conquest of the American Continent (2009)
the Mexican War, and the Conquest of the American Continent (2009)
On 4 January 1847, President James Knox Polk was informed that the Wilmot Proviso was introduced in the House of Representatives, and that Hannibal Hamlin (ME) was organizing opposition to the “10,000 Regiment Bill”. Unlike the Lt. General bill that was pending in Congress, the 10k Regiment Bill plus the reintroduction of the $2m war funding bill was far more crucial to Polk, in that both were necessary to take the war to the interior of Mexico (especially to Mexico City).
Polk’s falling political standing in Congress was mostly due to his lack of leadership skills. Unlike Jackson, Polk was not able to inspire loyalty or fear. Polk couldn’t manipulate men and votes like Henry Clay, and he offered no political incentives, threats, or punishments. Therefore, more-and-more in Congress and DC not only ignored Polk’s wishes, but attacked him in public. And those frontal assaults in essence started with his own Secretary of State, James Buchanan, and soon word was out that Polk was an easy mark.
However, Polk had legendary perseverance, which his political enemies vastly underestimated. Polk’s problems multiplied when General Taylor proved to be uncooperative and uncommunicative in northern Mexico. By this early stage in the war, a very touchy and sensitive Taylor already felt unappreciated and victimized. Also, General Winfield Scott (Taylor’s superior) had leaked the plans of the attack on Veracruz to the press, mostly out of vanity. So, Polk not only had problems in Congress in terms of authorizing and funding more soldiers, but his two highest-ranking generals were high-maintenance divas. And then to complicate things further, news came from New Orleans that Santa Ana was moving an army towards Taylor.
Polk’s falling political standing in Congress was mostly due to his lack of leadership skills. Unlike Jackson, Polk was not able to inspire loyalty or fear. Polk couldn’t manipulate men and votes like Henry Clay, and he offered no political incentives, threats, or punishments. Therefore, more-and-more in Congress and DC not only ignored Polk’s wishes, but attacked him in public. And those frontal assaults in essence started with his own Secretary of State, James Buchanan, and soon word was out that Polk was an easy mark.
However, Polk had legendary perseverance, which his political enemies vastly underestimated. Polk’s problems multiplied when General Taylor proved to be uncooperative and uncommunicative in northern Mexico. By this early stage in the war, a very touchy and sensitive Taylor already felt unappreciated and victimized. Also, General Winfield Scott (Taylor’s superior) had leaked the plans of the attack on Veracruz to the press, mostly out of vanity. So, Polk not only had problems in Congress in terms of authorizing and funding more soldiers, but his two highest-ranking generals were high-maintenance divas. And then to complicate things further, news came from New Orleans that Santa Ana was moving an army towards Taylor.
On 11 January 1847, the House easily passed the 10x Regiment Bill, but it became stalled in the Senate. On 27 January 1847, the Senate finally passed a “Loan Bill” for Polk’s signature (remember, there was no National Bank), and then on 30 January 1847 the Senate passed the 10x Regiment Bill by a vote of 39 - 3, after which it was sent back to the House so that chamber could consider the Senate’s amendments to the bill. All of this had taken far too long to accomplish as far as Polk was concerned.
On 5 February 1847, debate started in the Senate on what was now called the “$3m Bill”. On 8 February 1847, Lewis Cass
informed Polk that the Senate had rejected the 10x Regiment Bill conference committee report in that many Whigs had joined Democrats that supported John C. Calhoun in opposition. However, Polk’s supporters worked the 10x Regiment Bill through the next conference committee,, after which the bill was finally passed in the Senate. After the long delays in Congress, Polk finally had the ability to go inland in Mexico with US forces.
On 9 February 1847, Calhoun rose in the Senate and argued that the military should only take and hold what was already being called the New Mexico Territory and California. Calhoun’s rationale was that by doing so, Mexico would be forced to attack what we already possessed, which would be a quicker/better path to wrapping up the war and negotiating a favorable peace. Therefore, Calhoun was very much opposed to any military landing at Veracruz; in essence, Calhoun claimed that he knew how to fight the war better than Polk.
On 5 February 1847, debate started in the Senate on what was now called the “$3m Bill”. On 8 February 1847, Lewis Cass
informed Polk that the Senate had rejected the 10x Regiment Bill conference committee report in that many Whigs had joined Democrats that supported John C. Calhoun in opposition. However, Polk’s supporters worked the 10x Regiment Bill through the next conference committee,, after which the bill was finally passed in the Senate. After the long delays in Congress, Polk finally had the ability to go inland in Mexico with US forces.
On 9 February 1847, Calhoun rose in the Senate and argued that the military should only take and hold what was already being called the New Mexico Territory and California. Calhoun’s rationale was that by doing so, Mexico would be forced to attack what we already possessed, which would be a quicker/better path to wrapping up the war and negotiating a favorable peace. Therefore, Calhoun was very much opposed to any military landing at Veracruz; in essence, Calhoun claimed that he knew how to fight the war better than Polk.
Thomas Hart Benton then stood and accused Calhoun of actually starting the Mexican War. Calhoun was President Monroe’s SecWar during the acquisition of Spanish Florida in 1819, and was an avid and vocal supporter of the annexation of Texas as President Tyler’s SecState. Calhoun’s letter coveting Texas as a future slave state further polarized the debate on the expansion of slavery in the mid-1840s. Calhoun’s rebuttal to Benton’s charges were forced, defensive, and ineffective; Benton’s attack had hit home.
During the last 24 hours of the lame-duck session of Congress, the $3m Bill was passed without the Wilmot Proviso by a vote of 115 - 81 in the House; Wilmot had tried to pass his proviso separately, which was in direct opposition to his promise to Polk, but it failed by five votes. One of the results of the military and funding bills being passed by Congress was that Polk now had the ability to organize to regiments and to appoint new generals, including three major generals and two brigadier generals (but no #1 Lieutenant General, since that bill was still stalled). But Congress had failed to provide any measures for additional ( and future) revenue to pay for the war (again, the US didn’t have a National Bank). For the time being, however, Polk could concentrate on being Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces as President.
During the last 24 hours of the lame-duck session of Congress, the $3m Bill was passed without the Wilmot Proviso by a vote of 115 - 81 in the House; Wilmot had tried to pass his proviso separately, which was in direct opposition to his promise to Polk, but it failed by five votes. One of the results of the military and funding bills being passed by Congress was that Polk now had the ability to organize to regiments and to appoint new generals, including three major generals and two brigadier generals (but no #1 Lieutenant General, since that bill was still stalled). But Congress had failed to provide any measures for additional ( and future) revenue to pay for the war (again, the US didn’t have a National Bank). For the time being, however, Polk could concentrate on being Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces as President.
When news traveled slowly and came in fragments, tremendous suspense resulted. During March 1847, news hit DC that Taylor had suffered a terrible defeat at the hands of Santa Anna at Saltillo (a.k.a. Buena Vista). Polk understood that, if the report was true, Taylor’s defeat could very well do in his Presidency. Taylor was supposed to remain at Monterrey, but on his own volition he decided to go south to Saltillo, which did not feature nearly as much, or as high, quality defensive positions.
On the second day of the battle at Saltillo, Santa Anna had flanked Taylor, and was ready to close out the engagement. At great cost, Taylor repulsed Santa Anna from flanking him on his left by using bold attacks and artillery. That night, Sanata Anna realized he no longer had his advantage and retreated from the field. In effect, Saltillo was the Iwo Jima of the Mexican War, in that there was no strategic justification for Taylor to even be in that position, and the cost of victory was great. Taylor’s army suffered 665 casualties (WIA/KIA) out of a total of 4594 soldiers, which was a casualty percentage of 14.5% . . . and, Santa Anna’s army was still intact and mobile.
On the second day of the battle at Saltillo, Santa Anna had flanked Taylor, and was ready to close out the engagement. At great cost, Taylor repulsed Santa Anna from flanking him on his left by using bold attacks and artillery. That night, Sanata Anna realized he no longer had his advantage and retreated from the field. In effect, Saltillo was the Iwo Jima of the Mexican War, in that there was no strategic justification for Taylor to even be in that position, and the cost of victory was great. Taylor’s army suffered 665 casualties (WIA/KIA) out of a total of 4594 soldiers, which was a casualty percentage of 14.5% . . . and, Santa Anna’s army was still intact and mobile.
Once more news concerning Saltillo became known (especially Santa Anna’s retreat), Taylor was celebrated as an American military hero, and the Whigs contemplated him as their Presidential candidate in 1848. Polk saw Taylor’s “victory” in a different light, since it in no way would it shorten the war. One of the KIA at Saltillo was Henry Clay, Jr, who was wounded and lying on the ground when he was bayoneted to death. Clay was almost 70 years old, had lost many family members, and hadn’t achieved the Presidency that he had truly coveted . . . and to lose his son in a war started by a protege of Andrew Jackson was a personal and political dagger to his heart.
By March 1847, the Abolitionist movement had reached a level of numbers and influence where Calhoun organized a Southern backlash . . . it was the birth of the Southern Democrats. Polk had no patience for either the Abolitionists or the Southern Democrats, seeing both as unpatriotic. On 9 March 1847, General Scott’s force landed 12,000 men three miles south of Veracruz without much opposition. Very soon thereafter, Veracruz and its fortress surrendered to Scott and US Naval forces. Scott shelled the city and castle fortress for three days until the Mexican commander had to quit fighting.
By March 1847, the Abolitionist movement had reached a level of numbers and influence where Calhoun organized a Southern backlash . . . it was the birth of the Southern Democrats. Polk had no patience for either the Abolitionists or the Southern Democrats, seeing both as unpatriotic. On 9 March 1847, General Scott’s force landed 12,000 men three miles south of Veracruz without much opposition. Very soon thereafter, Veracruz and its fortress surrendered to Scott and US Naval forces. Scott shelled the city and castle fortress for three days until the Mexican commander had to quit fighting.
Polk needed a diplomatic envoy to accompany Scott on his way to Mexico City. SecState Buchanan suggested Nicholas Trist who was his chief clerk in the State Department and was experienced and talented. Polk decided that Trist would be the envoy unless Mexico specifically asked for Buchanan (and for what it was worth, the Cabinet agreed). Trist married Thomas Jefferson’s granddaughter, and he even helped take care of Jefferson to the end of the former President’s life. Trist befriended Andrew Jackson Donelson at West Point, and soon became part of President Jackson’s Circle of Trust.
Trist succeeded Donelson as Jackson’s private secretary (kind of like today’s Chief of Staff), and that was when Trist in particular became politically connected. From 1833 - 1841, Trist was US Consul in Havana, but his career trajectory turned downward after the death of President William Henry Harrison in 1841 when Tyler’s Whigs had the votes to remove him from the post. Soon thereafter, Trist attached his star to James Buchanan, and he became one of Buchanan’s most trusted men. One of Trist’s character traits was similar to Jefferson and Madison, in that he believed that Virginians were naturally superior to all other Americans; that level of certitude would come into play soon enough. Trist was empowered to spend up to $30m for the Rio Grande and what would become the Mexican Cession. The generals in Mexico were ordered to stop all hostilities if Trist succeeded in his negotiations.
Trist succeeded Donelson as Jackson’s private secretary (kind of like today’s Chief of Staff), and that was when Trist in particular became politically connected. From 1833 - 1841, Trist was US Consul in Havana, but his career trajectory turned downward after the death of President William Henry Harrison in 1841 when Tyler’s Whigs had the votes to remove him from the post. Soon thereafter, Trist attached his star to James Buchanan, and he became one of Buchanan’s most trusted men. One of Trist’s character traits was similar to Jefferson and Madison, in that he believed that Virginians were naturally superior to all other Americans; that level of certitude would come into play soon enough. Trist was empowered to spend up to $30m for the Rio Grande and what would become the Mexican Cession. The generals in Mexico were ordered to stop all hostilities if Trist succeeded in his negotiations.
During May 1847, Scott defeated Santa Anna at Cerro Gordo, despite Santa Ana’s superior defensive position. Santa Ana escaped by mule and left behind 3000 soldiers and $6000 in payroll. Initially, Scott and Trist didn’t get along at all, and Polk didn’t know what to do about the two vain glory-hunters. It sour relationship started when Trist arrived in Mexico but did not personally present himself to Scott w/ the proper decorum. Instead Trist sent some important documents ahead with a terse cover letter, which infuriated Scott.
Scott communicated to Trist that there was no way he was subservient to a clerk from the State Dept. Scott also stated that he, not Trist, would be the one in charge of all the diplomacy with Mexico. Scott also wrote to DC and found a way to drag Polk into his vainglorious rants. Polk and the Cabinet wanted to replace Scott, but that was logistically a near-impossibility. Scott kept writing to DC, and it soon reached a point where he basically dared the President to remove him. While both Polk and the Cabinet believed that both Scott and Trist should be removed and disciplined, the war was at a crucial juncture, and dealing with the two divas could seriously disrupt the momentum the US currently had prosecuting the war.
Scott communicated to Trist that there was no way he was subservient to a clerk from the State Dept. Scott also stated that he, not Trist, would be the one in charge of all the diplomacy with Mexico. Scott also wrote to DC and found a way to drag Polk into his vainglorious rants. Polk and the Cabinet wanted to replace Scott, but that was logistically a near-impossibility. Scott kept writing to DC, and it soon reached a point where he basically dared the President to remove him. While both Polk and the Cabinet believed that both Scott and Trist should be removed and disciplined, the war was at a crucial juncture, and dealing with the two divas could seriously disrupt the momentum the US currently had prosecuting the war.