Sources: * Joshua Kendall. The Forgotten Founding Father - Noah Webster’s
Obsession and the Creation of an American Culture (2011)
* Harlow Giles Unger. The Last Founding Father - James Monroe
and a Nation’s Call to Greatness (2009)
Obsession and the Creation of an American Culture (2011)
* Harlow Giles Unger. The Last Founding Father - James Monroe
and a Nation’s Call to Greatness (2009)
On 14 December 1799, George Washington died. Noah Webster, who was one of Washington's favorites, sought to be Washington's biographer. But Bushrod Washington (a nephew, who almost exactly a year earlier was confirmed as an Associate Justice on the Supreme Court), who held Washington's papers, chose Representative John Marshall (VA) instead, who soon would become Chief Justice of the Supreme Court.
Webster didn't feel the same level of commitment to the Federalists as he did to Washington. Webster was steadfast in his support of President John Adams, but he wasn't in awe. Webster supported Adams in the Election of 1800 against the Republican candidate Thomas Jefferson, which put Webster at loggerheads with the de facto leader of the Federalist Party,
Alexander Hamilton. Webster wrote editorials in support of Adams, who was being savagely attacked by Hamilton's poison pen.
After the Election of 1800, Hamilton refused to contribute to Webster's newspapers, and started his own, the New York Evening Post, which eventually became the New York Post, America's longest-running daily (now owned by Rupert Murdoch). By the fall of 1801, Webster and Hamilton engaged in New York's first newspaper war, which was an ideological (not personal) conflict, as well as a battle for circulation.
In a way, the newspaper war centered on which of the two was the #1 critic of President Jefferson and the Republicans. Webster saw Republican opposition to Adams as disloyal; ironically, Webster never figured out that Jefferson didn't want anything to do with him in terms of his dictionary in the years that followed. Jefferson viewed Webster as a mere pedagogue with limited political insights. Soon after Jefferson became President, Webster turned increasingly anti-Democratic and paranoid, and isolated himself at home in the "Arnold House".
Webster didn't feel the same level of commitment to the Federalists as he did to Washington. Webster was steadfast in his support of President John Adams, but he wasn't in awe. Webster supported Adams in the Election of 1800 against the Republican candidate Thomas Jefferson, which put Webster at loggerheads with the de facto leader of the Federalist Party,
Alexander Hamilton. Webster wrote editorials in support of Adams, who was being savagely attacked by Hamilton's poison pen.
After the Election of 1800, Hamilton refused to contribute to Webster's newspapers, and started his own, the New York Evening Post, which eventually became the New York Post, America's longest-running daily (now owned by Rupert Murdoch). By the fall of 1801, Webster and Hamilton engaged in New York's first newspaper war, which was an ideological (not personal) conflict, as well as a battle for circulation.
In a way, the newspaper war centered on which of the two was the #1 critic of President Jefferson and the Republicans. Webster saw Republican opposition to Adams as disloyal; ironically, Webster never figured out that Jefferson didn't want anything to do with him in terms of his dictionary in the years that followed. Jefferson viewed Webster as a mere pedagogue with limited political insights. Soon after Jefferson became President, Webster turned increasingly anti-Democratic and paranoid, and isolated himself at home in the "Arnold House".
The success of Webster's speller meant that Webster could completely leave the newspaper business. On 15 October 1803, in his last editorial, Webster attacked a critic that disparaged his "Plague Book" on the Yellow Fever epidemic of the late-1790s (Webster argued that poor sanitation was the main cause). By 1803, Webster had already established himself as an obsessive definer. Webster advertised that he would create a dictionary unlike his predecessors that would actually create an American version of English . . . so much so it would make the work of those that came before him obsolete. Twenty-five years after Lexington & Concord, Webster's plan to replace the King's English, his "Linguistic Revolution", would be a lonely one. It seemed that no one had anything positive to say about Webster's proposed dictionary; he was accused of trying to add a bunch of "silly words" to English.
In 1806, Webster published his Compendium (which meant concise) Dictionary, which was designed as an initial foray to his larger forthcoming dictionary. Americans did not fall all over themselves in embracing Webster's Compendium. Attacks on his first dictionary poured in; even U.S. Senator John Quincy Adams issued a polite-but-pointed rebuke of the dictionary. Webster's definitions had far more precision than his predecessors, but Webster's sweeping denunciations of his predecessors turned off potential supporters as well as buyers.
In 1806, Webster published his Compendium (which meant concise) Dictionary, which was designed as an initial foray to his larger forthcoming dictionary. Americans did not fall all over themselves in embracing Webster's Compendium. Attacks on his first dictionary poured in; even U.S. Senator John Quincy Adams issued a polite-but-pointed rebuke of the dictionary. Webster's definitions had far more precision than his predecessors, but Webster's sweeping denunciations of his predecessors turned off potential supporters as well as buyers.
James Monroe returned from France as a hero in Virginia, especially by the recently married James and Dolley Madison. Monroe was soon enlisted by Madison to help Jefferson win the Election of 1800. In December 1799, Monroe was elected Governor by the Virginia General Assembly; he was paid $3000/yr for basically doing nothing, since the office was rendered powerless by the powerful Virginia Planters. Monroe's tenure as Governor started on a very somber note, in that on 14 December 1799, Washington died.
Monroe did his best to reinvent the Governorship of Virginia, speaking candidly and often. Monroe basically shamed the Assembly into action in education, roads, and the militia. Monroe started the "State-of-the-State" address, showing the positives/negatives facing Virginia, and what he suggested should be done. As Governor, Monroe was instrumental in helping Jefferson and Madison organize Republicans in Virginia. On December 1801, Monroe was selected for his third one-year term as Governor, the last term allowed by Virginia's Constitution.
Monroe did his best to reinvent the Governorship of Virginia, speaking candidly and often. Monroe basically shamed the Assembly into action in education, roads, and the militia. Monroe started the "State-of-the-State" address, showing the positives/negatives facing Virginia, and what he suggested should be done. As Governor, Monroe was instrumental in helping Jefferson and Madison organize Republicans in Virginia. On December 1801, Monroe was selected for his third one-year term as Governor, the last term allowed by Virginia's Constitution.
Unknown to Jefferson early in his Presidency was that Spain had receded the Louisiana Territory to France in 1800, largely due to Spain's realization that it was unable to stem the tide of Americans crossing the Appalachians. Spain hoped that the French military could stop the American tidal wave towards the Mississippi River and the Gulf Coast, thereby securing their vital interests in North America. Napoleon planned on sending 20,000 troops to New Orleans, using the Louisiana Territory for necessary resources as well as settling accounts from the humiliating losses surrounding the French Revolution.
Napoleon needed to send his soldiers to New Orleans before Jefferson knew what was happening. Napoleon gambled that Jefferson, a long-time Francophile, would not interfere with his plans in Louisiana if he could achieve a fait accompli in New Orleans. But Jefferson forgot his love affair with France when he found out about Spain's deal with France . . . Jefferson understood the importance of New Orleans, not only economically, but also strategically. In August 1802, the U.S. Minister to France, Robert Livingston, received orders from Jefferson to confirm Spain's recession of the Louisiana Territory to France . . . Napoleon ordered his government officials to delay any confirmation of the agreement.
Napoleon needed to send his soldiers to New Orleans before Jefferson knew what was happening. Napoleon gambled that Jefferson, a long-time Francophile, would not interfere with his plans in Louisiana if he could achieve a fait accompli in New Orleans. But Jefferson forgot his love affair with France when he found out about Spain's deal with France . . . Jefferson understood the importance of New Orleans, not only economically, but also strategically. In August 1802, the U.S. Minister to France, Robert Livingston, received orders from Jefferson to confirm Spain's recession of the Louisiana Territory to France . . . Napoleon ordered his government officials to delay any confirmation of the agreement.
As Livingston waited and fumed at the delays, 20,000 troops were getting ready to leave Dunkirk for New Orleans . . . then fate intervened. Delay after delay occurred in terms of getting the ships ready to sail, and then an Arctic front-for-the-ages descended that was so cold, the French ships were frozen in ice at their docks. Then, a massive slave revolt occurred in Santo Domingo which not only threatened the major French sugar cane plantation, but also France's "jumping-off point" in the Caribbean to New Orleans. Napoleon was rumored to say "damn sugar, damn coffee, damn colonies".
Meanwhile in New Orleans, while the French were stuck at Dunkirk, Americans were getting ready to take New Orleans. Spain had refused U.S. entry (including cargo ships) into New Orleans, and in late-1802, Jefferson ordered his Secretary of War, Henry Dearborn, to get ready to invade the city. Before going to war, however, Jefferson decided to emulate Washington and John Adams and sent a commission to Paris . . . that commission was James Monroe. Monroe was given full discretionary powers, with Jefferson announcing that Monroe was also Minister Extraordinaire with France AND Spain, and had carte blanche with Britain . . . all in order to gain possession of New Orleans.
Meanwhile in New Orleans, while the French were stuck at Dunkirk, Americans were getting ready to take New Orleans. Spain had refused U.S. entry (including cargo ships) into New Orleans, and in late-1802, Jefferson ordered his Secretary of War, Henry Dearborn, to get ready to invade the city. Before going to war, however, Jefferson decided to emulate Washington and John Adams and sent a commission to Paris . . . that commission was James Monroe. Monroe was given full discretionary powers, with Jefferson announcing that Monroe was also Minister Extraordinaire with France AND Spain, and had carte blanche with Britain . . . all in order to gain possession of New Orleans.
Monroe was instructed to inform France that the U.S. was going to take possession of New Orleans, either by purchase, or by force . . . so therefore, why not sell New Orleans to the U.S.? Congress authorized $2 million for Monroe, but Jefferson authorized Monroe to go as high as $9 million for not only New Orleans, but also West Florida.
Spain yielded on the restrictions they placed on the U.S. in New Orleans, mostly due to pressure from Napoleon. That development didn't change Monroe's mission in Paris; Monroe told the French foreign minister if France set foot in New Orleans, America would not only to to war with France, but also enter a military alliance with Great Britain.
When the ice melted in the docks at Dunkirk, Britain believed the armada of French ships was getting ready to cross the Channel, and the Royal Navy boxed in the French ships, which was to America's great advantage. It was at this point that Napoleon started to seriously think about selling the Louisiana Territory to the U.S. The British Ambassador in Paris commented that "through no effort of their own, the Americans are now delivered".
Spain yielded on the restrictions they placed on the U.S. in New Orleans, mostly due to pressure from Napoleon. That development didn't change Monroe's mission in Paris; Monroe told the French foreign minister if France set foot in New Orleans, America would not only to to war with France, but also enter a military alliance with Great Britain.
When the ice melted in the docks at Dunkirk, Britain believed the armada of French ships was getting ready to cross the Channel, and the Royal Navy boxed in the French ships, which was to America's great advantage. It was at this point that Napoleon started to seriously think about selling the Louisiana Territory to the U.S. The British Ambassador in Paris commented that "through no effort of their own, the Americans are now delivered".
Livingston wasn't happy that Monroe was in Paris, feeling that his efforts would be co-opted by Monroe. Three weeks after arriving in France, Monroe (and Livingston) ignored his instructions, and signed an agreement with France's Finance Minister, buying all of the Louisiana Territory; the signing ceremony was no different than signing papers at a lawyer's office. The U.S. spent $15 million for land that doubled the size of the U.S. at .04/acre (the going rate in America was $2/acre).
It was also agreed that about 25% of future revenues from selling land in the Louisiana Territory would go towards paying claims of Americans against France from the "Quasi-War" in 1798. Monroe was a little unsettled with signing the agreement, in that he far exceeded the $9 million maximum, and that he was unable to get West Florida . . . Spain hadn't retro-ceded West Florida (or New Orleans for that matter) to France in 1800.
It was also agreed that about 25% of future revenues from selling land in the Louisiana Territory would go towards paying claims of Americans against France from the "Quasi-War" in 1798. Monroe was a little unsettled with signing the agreement, in that he far exceeded the $9 million maximum, and that he was unable to get West Florida . . . Spain hadn't retro-ceded West Florida (or New Orleans for that matter) to France in 1800.