Sources: * Joshua Kendall. The Forgotten Founding Father - Noah Webster’s Obsession and
the Creation of an American Culture (2011)
* Harlow Giles Unger. The Last Founding Father - James Monroe and a Nation’s
Call to Greatness (2009)
the Creation of an American Culture (2011)
* Harlow Giles Unger. The Last Founding Father - James Monroe and a Nation’s
Call to Greatness (2009)
At the time the Revolutionary War drew to a close, Noah Webster , seeing the national debate on which language should be "#1" in America (e.g. German, Hebrew), realized that a "Speller" would end the debate. That future speller would give him the fame and financial security that he wanted (by 1784, Webster had made enough money from his speller that he was able to dedicate his life to his "work with words"). Webster had reworked and improved previous spellers, and his version came out at the perfect time, and it sold well immediately.
Webster's method of instruction was the most user-friendly to date, simple-yet-rigorous, and it spoke directly to children. Webster did more than publish a speller: he also helped give birth to a new language, which would in turn help unite a fledgling nation. Webster's speller was a linguistic Declaration of Independence . . . it was an English unique to America. Webster divided words based on their pronunciation rather than the abstract principle of Latin from previous spellers. Webster saw the publication of his speller as a necessary follow-up, and even a continuation, of the American Revolution.
Webster's method of instruction was the most user-friendly to date, simple-yet-rigorous, and it spoke directly to children. Webster did more than publish a speller: he also helped give birth to a new language, which would in turn help unite a fledgling nation. Webster's speller was a linguistic Declaration of Independence . . . it was an English unique to America. Webster divided words based on their pronunciation rather than the abstract principle of Latin from previous spellers. Webster saw the publication of his speller as a necessary follow-up, and even a continuation, of the American Revolution.
Webster had to arrange for the financing, printing, and distribution of his speller, like all other authors in America in those days. Webster also was responsible for marketing, of which he had a knack, and his pre-publication publicity and book tours created a "national buzz", increasing demand. Over the next century, only the Bible would sell more copies than Webster's speller . . . but despite that success, Webster struggled with anxiety and alienation.
To protect his speller (and to maximize his profits), Webster took it upon himself to become the 'Father of US Copyright Law". Webster found out from Thomas Jefferson and James Madison that the Articles of Confederation had no authority to pass a national copyright law. Webster used the Connecticut legislature to pass America's first copyright law, and New York, Massachusetts, Maryland, New Jersey, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island followed suit. Only then did Webster start to arrange for the publication of his speller, negotiating a deal with a publishing company that also issued a newspaper titled The Connecticut Courant.
Webster convinced friends to invest, and after enough money had been raised, he wrote an IOU, which the company accepted in return for the ability to publish future editions. On 16 September 1783, just two weeks after the Treaty of Paris was signed, Webster placed an ad in the Courant, which gushed about his speller, offering discounts for those that bought in bulk. Webster also included testimonials from several key local officials.
To protect his speller (and to maximize his profits), Webster took it upon himself to become the 'Father of US Copyright Law". Webster found out from Thomas Jefferson and James Madison that the Articles of Confederation had no authority to pass a national copyright law. Webster used the Connecticut legislature to pass America's first copyright law, and New York, Massachusetts, Maryland, New Jersey, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island followed suit. Only then did Webster start to arrange for the publication of his speller, negotiating a deal with a publishing company that also issued a newspaper titled The Connecticut Courant.
Webster convinced friends to invest, and after enough money had been raised, he wrote an IOU, which the company accepted in return for the ability to publish future editions. On 16 September 1783, just two weeks after the Treaty of Paris was signed, Webster placed an ad in the Courant, which gushed about his speller, offering discounts for those that bought in bulk. Webster also included testimonials from several key local officials.
Webster's promotional campaign switched among lofty goals and harsh critiques of predecessors in a contemptuous tone. Those that attacked Webster for his critiques actually helped raise awareness of his speller, and sales increased. In 1783, the Articles of Confederation proposed an amendment that would provide Revolutionary War officers pensions with a value-added tax of 5%; by May 1784, the greatest opposition to the amendment was in Connecticut.
The special convention in Connecticut knew that it could thwart the will of the other twelve states. Webster sided with Madison's view, insisting that Connecticut vote in support of the amendment in dozens of editorials. Webster labeled those that disagreed with him as enemies to his country, violent thugs, even traitors. Webster also wrote in his editorials about the need for a stronger national government . . . by the spring of 1784, Webster had started to directly appeal, and directly act with his speller, for American unity. On 19 May 1784, the Connecticut convention voted in favor of the "national impost",
93 - 42; Webster was credited by influential people on both sides of the issue as being a difference-maker.
The special convention in Connecticut knew that it could thwart the will of the other twelve states. Webster sided with Madison's view, insisting that Connecticut vote in support of the amendment in dozens of editorials. Webster labeled those that disagreed with him as enemies to his country, violent thugs, even traitors. Webster also wrote in his editorials about the need for a stronger national government . . . by the spring of 1784, Webster had started to directly appeal, and directly act with his speller, for American unity. On 19 May 1784, the Connecticut convention voted in favor of the "national impost",
93 - 42; Webster was credited by influential people on both sides of the issue as being a difference-maker.
During April 1782, James Monroe's uncle was elected to the Continental Congress. With momentum seemingly on his family's side, Monroe used his recommendations from the Revolutionary War (including Washington's) to help him get elected to the Virginia General Assembly (as did his long-time friend, John Marshall). On 6 May 1782, Monroe took his oath, but to his great disappointment, Jefferson wasn't present (once again, Jefferson was pouting at Monticello; this time it was due to many criticisms, some which were justified, and many that were not, about his actions and in-actions as Virginia's Governor during the Revolutionary War)
Monroe and Marshall were warmly welcomed to the Assembly, and Monroe was appointed to the eight-member Executive Council, which actually governed Virginia (the Governor was designed to be a figurehead with little power, which made many of the criticisms leveled at Jefferson all the more ironic and hypocritical). Monroe compensated for his less-than-stellar conversational skills by being a very good listener, featuring thoughtful nods and pleasant smiles. Monroe also wrote many meaningful letters; he was winning over people across Virginia and beyond.
In June 1782, Monroe was admitted to the bar, as was Marshall, but there were few opportunities to practice law in post-Revolutionary War Richmond (as Webster discovered in Connecticut). As for the Executive Council, Monroe discovered that it was nothing more than a Gentleman's Club of sorts, with games and conversation. No decisions were made, mainly so the ruling Planter Class would continue to dominate the politics and economics of Virginia.
Monroe and Marshall were warmly welcomed to the Assembly, and Monroe was appointed to the eight-member Executive Council, which actually governed Virginia (the Governor was designed to be a figurehead with little power, which made many of the criticisms leveled at Jefferson all the more ironic and hypocritical). Monroe compensated for his less-than-stellar conversational skills by being a very good listener, featuring thoughtful nods and pleasant smiles. Monroe also wrote many meaningful letters; he was winning over people across Virginia and beyond.
In June 1782, Monroe was admitted to the bar, as was Marshall, but there were few opportunities to practice law in post-Revolutionary War Richmond (as Webster discovered in Connecticut). As for the Executive Council, Monroe discovered that it was nothing more than a Gentleman's Club of sorts, with games and conversation. No decisions were made, mainly so the ruling Planter Class would continue to dominate the politics and economics of Virginia.
The phrase "real estate" came into meaning in the early-1780s. Land was the only currency in 1782 America, since there was no mint, and therefore no specie (coins). Land provided commodities that were used to barter for what people needed; gaining possession of land in the West represented a "real" estate to more-and-more Americans. That "real" estate could be passed to future generations within the family.
However, most Americans relied on "imaginary money" for most transactions, such as IOU's and entries in account books. Demand for western lands increased due to "crowding-out" in the East, also in part due to a significant increase in immigration from Europe. "Imaginary money" included land certificates, and with demand for land certificates increasing, so did their value. Every citizen of substance invested in these land certificates.
Scams were on the increase as well, with people/groups selling land certificates, but those certificates represented land that was already owned, or not even in existence. Monroe, the son of a carpenter, became proud of the land certificates that he held, and strongly supported expansion west. Monroe had much time to speculate on land certificates, in that after one year as a state legislator, the Assembly had accomplished nothing of significance.
However, most Americans relied on "imaginary money" for most transactions, such as IOU's and entries in account books. Demand for western lands increased due to "crowding-out" in the East, also in part due to a significant increase in immigration from Europe. "Imaginary money" included land certificates, and with demand for land certificates increasing, so did their value. Every citizen of substance invested in these land certificates.
Scams were on the increase as well, with people/groups selling land certificates, but those certificates represented land that was already owned, or not even in existence. Monroe, the son of a carpenter, became proud of the land certificates that he held, and strongly supported expansion west. Monroe had much time to speculate on land certificates, in that after one year as a state legislator, the Assembly had accomplished nothing of significance.
So popular was Monroe with his legislative peers that he was elected to the Continental Congress, joining four others, including Jefferson (James Madison was heading back to Virginia after his three-year term expired). Monroe spent the Summer of 1783 at Monticello with Jefferson before their term started in December 1783. The Continental Congress convened in Annapolis (MD), and Jefferson lived in luxury while Monroe, broke and virtually penniless in comparison, considered his options (he still hadn't been paid for his year of service as a state legislator).
Jefferson insisted that Monroe be with him as much as possible, which meant not only lodging with him often, but also meeting many important and powerful people, and making many quality connections. On 23 December 1783 on the floor of the Continental Congress in Annapolis, Monroe witnessed Washington surrender his commission. A great general that led his nation to victory in a war went home, refusing to take power . . . it was unprecedented in history. With the Continental Congress every bit as inactive like the Virginia Assembly, Monroe had the time to become almost as fluent in French as Jefferson.
Jefferson insisted that Monroe be with him as much as possible, which meant not only lodging with him often, but also meeting many important and powerful people, and making many quality connections. On 23 December 1783 on the floor of the Continental Congress in Annapolis, Monroe witnessed Washington surrender his commission. A great general that led his nation to victory in a war went home, refusing to take power . . . it was unprecedented in history. With the Continental Congress every bit as inactive like the Virginia Assembly, Monroe had the time to become almost as fluent in French as Jefferson.
Also during this time, Monroe learned the fine art of political discourse and debate, as well as proper behavior as a government official, from Jefferson. But Monroe was still in "follower-mode", voting the way the Virginia Assembly instructed. The major reason why the Continental Congress of the Articles of Confederation rarely voted was that a state delegation needed permission to vote from their state legislature, which rarely occurred. Also, when instructions were given, transportation was very slow, which delayed and cancelled many votes that may have occurred.
While Washington, Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe supported a stronger national government, that issue was hotly debated in the Continental Congress as well as across the nation. Congress became a "Debating Society" with no subsequent actions, which led to sparse attendance, and few quorums . . . the government under the Articles of Confederation was at stalemate, unable and unwilling to act.
While Washington, Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe supported a stronger national government, that issue was hotly debated in the Continental Congress as well as across the nation. Congress became a "Debating Society" with no subsequent actions, which led to sparse attendance, and few quorums . . . the government under the Articles of Confederation was at stalemate, unable and unwilling to act.