Source: Jon Meacham. Thomas Jefferson: The Art of Power (2012)
As President, Thomas Jefferson articulated ideals (theories), but largely acted pragmatically (practically) . . . especially helpful was his Secretary of State, James Madison. Jefferson used Hamiltonian methods to achieve his goals; the 3rd President embraced power very subtly. In terms of military strategy, Jefferson preferred to focus on defense (e.g. reducing the Navy), except when it came to the Barbary Pirates. A shakeup in Congress helped Jefferson immensely as President. From 1801 - 1803, there were 17 Republicans and 15 Federalists in the Senate; in 1807 - 1809, there were 28 Republicans and 6 Federalists. Jefferson told his Cabinet that he needed to see all the information they had from their departments; Jefferson wanted and needed to know everything . . . he believed in "The Art of Power".
Jefferson's favorite "political weapon" was hosting dinner parties, in that he used them as a tool for gathering political information and gossip. Many a Congressman's or Senator's vote was swayed by Jefferson during a dinner party. Jefferson's relationship with lawmakers kept information flowing between the Executive and Legislative branches. Jefferson was more a political chess player than a political warrior, hence the constant charges of "scheming" by his political opponents.
Jefferson believed that sociability was essential to Republicanism, in that citizens would become more virtuous and act for the public good on a regular basis. However, Jefferson never invited Republicans AND Federalists to his dinner parties . . . he absolutely abhorred conflict in his presence. So, Jefferson used his dinner parties to create more personal and political attachment to himself; very often, he let his guests sit where they chose, except for his usual seat, of course. Jefferson encouraged free-flowing conversation (with plenty of wine) instead of guests "toasting" each other non-stop, which he saw as false bonhomie. Jefferson had the gift of making everyone at his dinner parties feel comfortable and respected, which led to the kind of conversations that Jefferson could at least potentially use politically.
Jefferson believed that sociability was essential to Republicanism, in that citizens would become more virtuous and act for the public good on a regular basis. However, Jefferson never invited Republicans AND Federalists to his dinner parties . . . he absolutely abhorred conflict in his presence. So, Jefferson used his dinner parties to create more personal and political attachment to himself; very often, he let his guests sit where they chose, except for his usual seat, of course. Jefferson encouraged free-flowing conversation (with plenty of wine) instead of guests "toasting" each other non-stop, which he saw as false bonhomie. Jefferson had the gift of making everyone at his dinner parties feel comfortable and respected, which led to the kind of conversations that Jefferson could at least potentially use politically.
President Jefferson authorized the rules of engagement with the Barbary Pirates; he controlled events while appearing to defer to Congress. That style was typical of Jefferson, in that he could achieve his goal without causing confrontation or a crisis with Congress. By the time Jefferson had to directly deal with the Barbary Pirates early in his first term, he had become a broad interpreter of the Constitution, which was a very Hamiltonian thing to do.
On 31 October 1803, the U.S.S. Philadelphia was captured by Barbary Pirates based out of Tripoli. In February 1804, Stephen Decatur and a detachment of Marines torched the U.S.S. Philadelphia, which had been overrun and taken, denying the Barbary Pirates use of the frigate against the United States. After a successful "Black Ops" mission that was led by William Eaton (and authorized by Jefferson), a detachment of Marines, and a bevy of North Africans opposed to Tripoli, Jefferson announced to Congress that the enemy in the Mediterranean had, in essence, learned their lesson, and the U.S. would no longer have to pay "Tribute" . . . shortly thereafter, hostilities once again resumed.
On 31 October 1803, the U.S.S. Philadelphia was captured by Barbary Pirates based out of Tripoli. In February 1804, Stephen Decatur and a detachment of Marines torched the U.S.S. Philadelphia, which had been overrun and taken, denying the Barbary Pirates use of the frigate against the United States. After a successful "Black Ops" mission that was led by William Eaton (and authorized by Jefferson), a detachment of Marines, and a bevy of North Africans opposed to Tripoli, Jefferson announced to Congress that the enemy in the Mediterranean had, in essence, learned their lesson, and the U.S. would no longer have to pay "Tribute" . . . shortly thereafter, hostilities once again resumed.
In the Spring of 1801, Spain ceded half of their North American empire to Napoleon in the third Treaty of San Ildefonso. France now had the Louisiana Territory, and a new U.S. political course was required. In a way, Jefferson was the perfect President at the perfect time for the Louisiana Purchase; a less-courageous politician would have bungled, a too-idealistic politician would have been inflexible.
The Louisiana Purchase needed to be ratified by 30 October 1803; Jefferson called on Congress to meet on 17 October for "great and weighty matters". Jefferson's initial view on the purchase was that it required an amendment to the Constitution; his original intent was to formally ask both houses of Congress to propose the necessary amendment (Jefferson's initial thought was that purchasing the Louisiana Territory may have been in excess of his powers under the Constitution). In mid-August 1803, Jefferson received information that France was not as interested in the deal . . . that information changed the landscape dramatically, in that there was no time for an amendment, hence the "weighty matters" communication to Congress.
The Louisiana Purchase needed to be ratified by 30 October 1803; Jefferson called on Congress to meet on 17 October for "great and weighty matters". Jefferson's initial view on the purchase was that it required an amendment to the Constitution; his original intent was to formally ask both houses of Congress to propose the necessary amendment (Jefferson's initial thought was that purchasing the Louisiana Territory may have been in excess of his powers under the Constitution). In mid-August 1803, Jefferson received information that France was not as interested in the deal . . . that information changed the landscape dramatically, in that there was no time for an amendment, hence the "weighty matters" communication to Congress.
The idealistic Jefferson wanted an amendment to justify the Louisiana Purchase, but the practical Jefferson wanted the land. In his mind, Jefferson saw a link in territorial expansion with increased Republicanism (virtue) and wealth. A Federalist U.S. Senator from Massachusetts, John Quincy Adams (who had known Jefferson since his childhood), suggested that Jefferson use the Executive's power of negotiation in Article 2 of the Constitution in order to justify the purchase. With the ratification in the Senate of the Louisiana Territory (24-7), the political tables had turned, in that the Federalists believed that Jefferson would become a "President-for-Life", in other words, a Monarch.
After Vice-President Aaron Burr killed former Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton in a duel
on 11 July 1804, Jefferson kept silent, which was politically wise. Jefferson thought that Hamilton had possessed dangerous tendencies, yet he used Hamilton's institutions and methods to be the first President to drastically increase the power of the Executive branch. On 6 August 1804, Jefferson was informed that his Vice-President was interested in effecting a separation from the nation in Western states/territories. In the months that followed, Jefferson was re-elected in 1804 with an Electoral vote count of 162 to 14 for the Federalist candidate Thomas Cotesworth Pinckney.
After Vice-President Aaron Burr killed former Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton in a duel
on 11 July 1804, Jefferson kept silent, which was politically wise. Jefferson thought that Hamilton had possessed dangerous tendencies, yet he used Hamilton's institutions and methods to be the first President to drastically increase the power of the Executive branch. On 6 August 1804, Jefferson was informed that his Vice-President was interested in effecting a separation from the nation in Western states/territories. In the months that followed, Jefferson was re-elected in 1804 with an Electoral vote count of 162 to 14 for the Federalist candidate Thomas Cotesworth Pinckney.
Jefferson knew that the now former Vice-President, Aaron Burr, was no longer a political threat, but he was convinced that Burr was a threat to potential disunion. Therefore, Jefferson was willing to go to extraordinary methods in order to deal with Burr and his activities in the West. On 22 January 1807, Jefferson publicly announced that Burr was guilty of treason "beyond reason"; it was the same approach that he used in 1778 as Governor of Virginia against Josiah Philips.
On March 1807, Burr was arrested for treason; Jefferson was deeply involved with the prosecution, but from a distance. During the trial, Jefferson was subpoenaed to testify against Burr . . . Jefferson refused to submit himself and the office of the President to the control of others. Jefferson did agree to submit "relevant documents", which were mostly copies of documents that the presiding judge, Chief Justice John Marshall, refused to allow into evidence. Burr's acquittal enraged Jefferson; to him, it was yet another in a line of incorrect decisions made by Federalists in the Supreme Court. Added to Marbury v Madison, and the failed removal of Associate Justice Samuel Chase, Jefferson's distrust of the newly self-empowered Judicial branch increased.
On March 1807, Burr was arrested for treason; Jefferson was deeply involved with the prosecution, but from a distance. During the trial, Jefferson was subpoenaed to testify against Burr . . . Jefferson refused to submit himself and the office of the President to the control of others. Jefferson did agree to submit "relevant documents", which were mostly copies of documents that the presiding judge, Chief Justice John Marshall, refused to allow into evidence. Burr's acquittal enraged Jefferson; to him, it was yet another in a line of incorrect decisions made by Federalists in the Supreme Court. Added to Marbury v Madison, and the failed removal of Associate Justice Samuel Chase, Jefferson's distrust of the newly self-empowered Judicial branch increased.
On 22 June 1807, the H.M.S. Leopard attacked the U.S.S. Chesapeake off the coast of Virginia. The Leopard fired 22 times before the Chesapeake could respond; 3 Americans were killed, and 17 more were wounded. Not long afterwards, another U.S. ship was fired upon; aboard that ship was Vice-President George Clinton (former Governor of New York). Jefferson had guessed that Congress would choose an embargo over war in response to the British attacks.
Jefferson was willing to use force, but he knew in this situation he couldn't act unilaterally. Jefferson was also practical, in that the U.S. Navy was nowhere-near the strength of the Royal Navy. "War Fever" had subsided overall in America, and the only realistic alternative seemed to be the embargo . . . Jefferson reluctantly agreed that an embargo was the "least-bad" alternative.
Jefferson was willing to use force, but he knew in this situation he couldn't act unilaterally. Jefferson was also practical, in that the U.S. Navy was nowhere-near the strength of the Royal Navy. "War Fever" had subsided overall in America, and the only realistic alternative seemed to be the embargo . . . Jefferson reluctantly agreed that an embargo was the "least-bad" alternative.
Jefferson's big gamble with the embargo was that he thought that time was on his side. By keeping ships in their ports, he thought that might lead to a faster conclusion of the war between Britain and France, and then "Freedom of the Seas" would return. On 22 December 1807, Jefferson signed the embargo into law: it was now the Embargo Act of 1807. The scope of the act surpassed even that of the Federalist Alien & Sedition Acts in 1798. Jefferson was given broad executive authority to enforce the embargo; U.S. exports decreased by at least 75% (some historians argue that the percentage was even greater).
In the early stages, Great Britain felt some of the effects of the embargo, and actively encouraged U.S. ships to try and sail to Europe despite the rigid enforcement. What Jefferson didn't know was that embargoes are impractical over the long-term, and Great Britain, while inconvenienced, was able to procure most of what they imported from the U.S. elsewhere.
The Embargo of 1807 turned U.S. politics on its head; now even loyal long-time Republicans believed that Jefferson had become a de facto Monarch, since he was now negatively affecting the lives of regular citizens (the embargo led to a severe economic downturn). Federalists (who were concentrated in New England) focused more-and-more on state's rights, and discussions to explore the possibility of secession intensified. Yet, as time would determine, any other decision but the embargo would have been madness or cowardice.
In the early stages, Great Britain felt some of the effects of the embargo, and actively encouraged U.S. ships to try and sail to Europe despite the rigid enforcement. What Jefferson didn't know was that embargoes are impractical over the long-term, and Great Britain, while inconvenienced, was able to procure most of what they imported from the U.S. elsewhere.
The Embargo of 1807 turned U.S. politics on its head; now even loyal long-time Republicans believed that Jefferson had become a de facto Monarch, since he was now negatively affecting the lives of regular citizens (the embargo led to a severe economic downturn). Federalists (who were concentrated in New England) focused more-and-more on state's rights, and discussions to explore the possibility of secession intensified. Yet, as time would determine, any other decision but the embargo would have been madness or cowardice.
In 1808, Jefferson was well-aware of his unpopularity with most Americans due to the Embargo of 1807, and as he had done before in the face of such political hostility and conflict (as Virginia's Governor during the Revolutionary War and as Secretary of State), he returned to his beloved Monticello. In effect, Jefferson was an "Absentee President" to close out his second term, and Secretary of State James Madison ran the Executive branch for the duration of Jefferson's second term, which was great training since he won the Election of 1808, and would serve two terms of his own as President.