Source: James Donovan. A Terrible Glory: Custer and the Little Bighorn -
The Last Great Battle of the American West (2009).
The Last Great Battle of the American West (2009).
For white Americans and the United States Government, it became known as "The Line"; it was the point from where Natives were forced to relocate West. One of the first "Lines" was the
Proclamation of 1763, which was the last time that Native sovereignty (in the interior) was considered important to the causes of peace and trade; of course it was only considered, not respected, by Colonial whites (e.g. Washington).
The demand for land by white Americans was enormous, and "The Line" kept moving West after such events as: The Battle of Fallen Timbers (1794) / Louisiana Purchase (1803) /
Indian Removal Act (1830; where white expansion picked up serious momentum) /
Indian Intercourse Act (1834; defined "Indian Territory") / The 1st Wagon Train to Reach the Platte River (1841; it was the origin of the
Oregon Trail) . . . by the early-1840s, Native removal was largely accomplished in the view of white America.
Proclamation of 1763, which was the last time that Native sovereignty (in the interior) was considered important to the causes of peace and trade; of course it was only considered, not respected, by Colonial whites (e.g. Washington).
The demand for land by white Americans was enormous, and "The Line" kept moving West after such events as: The Battle of Fallen Timbers (1794) / Louisiana Purchase (1803) /
Indian Removal Act (1830; where white expansion picked up serious momentum) /
Indian Intercourse Act (1834; defined "Indian Territory") / The 1st Wagon Train to Reach the Platte River (1841; it was the origin of the
Oregon Trail) . . . by the early-1840s, Native removal was largely accomplished in the view of white America.
By 1845, 5000 immigrants were on various trails West, but by 1850, the number increased to 55,000, many of whom traveled through Lakota Territory. Of course disease spread through Native populations, and increased violence against whites was the logical result. 1845 was the same year that the phrase "Manifest Destiny" first appeared (in the
Democratic Review); it provided political, social, economic, and even religious justification for whites to expand West.
The Mexican War (1846 - 1848) finalized most of the U.S. Government's claims in what would become known as the contiguous states (the Gadsden Purchase of 1853 was the last land purchase from Mexico). The Gold Rush in California dramatically increased expansion, and it also proved that "The Line" was no longer an effective solution to the "Native Problem".
Democratic Review); it provided political, social, economic, and even religious justification for whites to expand West.
The Mexican War (1846 - 1848) finalized most of the U.S. Government's claims in what would become known as the contiguous states (the Gadsden Purchase of 1853 was the last land purchase from Mexico). The Gold Rush in California dramatically increased expansion, and it also proved that "The Line" was no longer an effective solution to the "Native Problem".
As the 1850s progressed, the Reservation System from the East was applied in the Great Plains, and "Native Colonies" were established. There, in these "Colonies", Natives would be kept out of the white settlers' way, and taught to become "white". Thus began the U.S. Government strategy of negotiating (and forcing) treaties with Natives, taking what it wanted; the legality of most of the treaties were beyond-dubious.
An example: A treaty was signed between the Cheyenne & Arapaho Nations and the U.S. Gov't in 1851 where it was agreed that the Cheyenne would relocate to a reservation south of the Arkansas River, giving up all their lands. But, only 6 of the 44 Cheyenne and Arapaho chiefs signed the treaty . . . therefore, most Cheyenne and Arapaho didn't feel that they were bound by the document. Also, "Annuity Payments" on reservations were designed to wean Natives from buffalo, but the system was steeped in corruption, since it was headed by the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Despite all the dishonesty and corruption with the treaties and on the reservations, major warfare had been avoided in the Midwest and the Great Plains.
An example: A treaty was signed between the Cheyenne & Arapaho Nations and the U.S. Gov't in 1851 where it was agreed that the Cheyenne would relocate to a reservation south of the Arkansas River, giving up all their lands. But, only 6 of the 44 Cheyenne and Arapaho chiefs signed the treaty . . . therefore, most Cheyenne and Arapaho didn't feel that they were bound by the document. Also, "Annuity Payments" on reservations were designed to wean Natives from buffalo, but the system was steeped in corruption, since it was headed by the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Despite all the dishonesty and corruption with the treaties and on the reservations, major warfare had been avoided in the Midwest and the Great Plains.
In August, 1862, a massacre occurred in SW Minnesota that resulted in Natives killing over 800 whites; it started over a dispute between Natives and a white farmer over access to the farmer's hens' eggs. The Great Sioux Uprising (a.k.a. Minnesota Massacre; Great Sioux War) of 1862 was the first sign of large-scale, organized Native resistance.
General John Pope, then in charge of the Missouri Division, vowed revenge; he ordered
General Henry Sibley's troops into action, and they defeated a large number of Santee warriors at Wood Lake. Over 2000 were captured, and 38 were publicly hanged on 26 December, 1862; President Lincoln actually commuted over 300 Native executions. The Lakotas were stripped of their land in SW Minnesota by the Minnesota River, and moved to a reservation on the Missouri River. Sioux resistance (Lakota, Dakota, Nakota, and others) spread westward with the fleeing warriors, and violence on the Great Plains increased.
General John Pope, then in charge of the Missouri Division, vowed revenge; he ordered
General Henry Sibley's troops into action, and they defeated a large number of Santee warriors at Wood Lake. Over 2000 were captured, and 38 were publicly hanged on 26 December, 1862; President Lincoln actually commuted over 300 Native executions. The Lakotas were stripped of their land in SW Minnesota by the Minnesota River, and moved to a reservation on the Missouri River. Sioux resistance (Lakota, Dakota, Nakota, and others) spread westward with the fleeing warriors, and violence on the Great Plains increased.
The Sand Creek Massacre occurred on 29 November, 1864 under the command of Union Colonel John M. Chivington (pictured). Chivington attacked "Peace Chief" Black Kettle's sleeping Cheyenne village (about 100 lodges); even children were massacred under Chivington's orders. Over 200 Cheyenne were killed and mutilated by Chivington's men, and they proudly paraded through Denver (175 miles away), displaying Cheyenne body parts to cheering white Coloradans.
Enraged Cheyenne, Sioux, and Arapaho warriors raided towns, stage stations, ranches, wagon trains . . . they burned, looted, and killed wherever they could in retaliation for Sand Creek. During the Winter of 1864-1865, these warriors joined kinsmen in the Powder River country, which was the area between the Black Hills and the Bighorn Mountains, which the Lakota claimed as their homeland (although the Lakota had taken it from the Crow Nation a few decades earlier).
Enraged Cheyenne, Sioux, and Arapaho warriors raided towns, stage stations, ranches, wagon trains . . . they burned, looted, and killed wherever they could in retaliation for Sand Creek. During the Winter of 1864-1865, these warriors joined kinsmen in the Powder River country, which was the area between the Black Hills and the Bighorn Mountains, which the Lakota claimed as their homeland (although the Lakota had taken it from the Crow Nation a few decades earlier).
The Union Government initiated the Powder River Campaign in 1865; it became a fruitless endeavor to try and clear out marauding Natives in the region. Over 6000 soldiers in 3 columns stirred up the Lakota Nation for good, especially Chief Red Cloud (pictured; who had tallied over 80 coups by the age of 16, and coups were counted very carefully, much like confirmed kills for pilots in WW I and WW II) and the Oglala Nation. Red Cloud and his warriors reeked havoc over U.S. soldiers and whites foolish enough to enter the Powder River country, especially if they used the Bozeman Trail, which was the best route to the Montana gold mines.