Source: Harlow Giles Unger.
John Quincy Adams (2012).
The year 1794 was one of the more pivotal years in American History - 1794 was the year of the Whiskey Rebellion, the Battle at Fallen Timbers, when Eli Whitney patented his cotton gin, and the year that President George Washington appointed John Quincy Adams as a Resident Minister in Holland. With that appointment, the most illustrious and significant career in foreign affairs in early American History began. In effect, JQA became the main diplomatic intelligence-gatherer in Europe for Presidents Washington and Adams, and in that role, he helped America avoid war with France and Great Britain.
John Quincy Adams (2012).
The year 1794 was one of the more pivotal years in American History - 1794 was the year of the Whiskey Rebellion, the Battle at Fallen Timbers, when Eli Whitney patented his cotton gin, and the year that President George Washington appointed John Quincy Adams as a Resident Minister in Holland. With that appointment, the most illustrious and significant career in foreign affairs in early American History began. In effect, JQA became the main diplomatic intelligence-gatherer in Europe for Presidents Washington and Adams, and in that role, he helped America avoid war with France and Great Britain.
As a teenager, JQA traveled with his father, John Adams, to France and Great Britain; even when he was thirteen, JQA was very educated and worldly in the culture and affairs of Europe (he even introduced an important Dutch financier to his father, which led to significant and timely loans for the U.S. Gov't). By the time he was sixteen, JQA had made connections with many important Americans, such as Thomas Jefferson in Paris - they actually became quite close in the early-1780s. JQA was as big a celebrity in Paris as John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, and almost as famous as Benjamin Franklin. By the time JQA approached the age of 20, he knew more about European politics and their leaders than any other American.
John Quincy Adams needed to finish his university studies in America at Harvard, mostly so he could make connections in order to have a political future in America. After his initial difficulties in being formally admitted (Harvard's President was not a fan of his father), he became mostly bored in his studies - European universities were far more erudite. JQA was on "cruise-control" in his time at Harvard, graduating second in his class. JQA faced the same problem that many university graduates experience today: he needed to find employment.
John Quincy Adams needed to finish his university studies in America at Harvard, mostly so he could make connections in order to have a political future in America. After his initial difficulties in being formally admitted (Harvard's President was not a fan of his father), he became mostly bored in his studies - European universities were far more erudite. JQA was on "cruise-control" in his time at Harvard, graduating second in his class. JQA faced the same problem that many university graduates experience today: he needed to find employment.
John Adams insisted that his oldest son become a lawyer, as he did in his early-twenties. JQA toiled in obscurity, something he was not used to, until he catapulted himself to political prominence and relevance in Boston in the early-1790s. JQA wrote essays that were widely disseminated, criticizing the political philosophies of Thomas Paine and Thomas Jefferson concerning the French Revolution. In his essays, JQA agreed with President Washington that the Treaty of Alliance (1778) with France was not in force since France was the aggressor in Europe. As a result of his essays in support of Washington (JQA also savaged the actions of the French Minister to America, Charles Ginet), and also no doubt that he was the son of the Vice-President, Washington sent JQA to Holland as a "Resident Minister" in 1794. JQA, at the age of 27, was sent to Holland to be a "listener" and "reporter"; in other words, a diplomatic spy.
On his way to Holland, JQA was tasked by Washington to deliver crucial documents to John Jay in Great Britain - JQA actually assisted in the negotiations for what eventually called the Jay Treaty. JQA was perfectly posted in Holland; he seamlessly fit into European diplomatic society. He spent six hours every day writing detailed reports to President Washington detailing what he saw, heard, and thought. In short order, JQA became one of Europe's most skilled diplomats - in essence, he was America's best "Intelligence Gleaner."
Washington's new SecState, Timothy Pickering, sent JQA to Great Britain to help finalize the negotiations of the Jay Treaty. JQA had the honor of meeting face-to-face with King George III in 1796, which finalized the Jay Treaty from the British point of view. That same year, Washington promoted JQA to be the American Minister Plenipotentiary to Portugal; it was a huge increase in salary, so JQA finally married Louisa Catherine Johnson. But JQA would never reach Portugal (his personal belongings did, however); the new President, John Adams, decided to send his son to Prussia instead. While it was true that Prussia was a more significant posting, JQA had his heart set on Portugal (in part, due to the climate). JQA's confirmation to Prussia was on hold in the Senate, however; charges of nepotism spread through the chamber. After three postponements, the Senate finally confirmed JQA as the U.S. Minister to Prussia
Washington's new SecState, Timothy Pickering, sent JQA to Great Britain to help finalize the negotiations of the Jay Treaty. JQA had the honor of meeting face-to-face with King George III in 1796, which finalized the Jay Treaty from the British point of view. That same year, Washington promoted JQA to be the American Minister Plenipotentiary to Portugal; it was a huge increase in salary, so JQA finally married Louisa Catherine Johnson. But JQA would never reach Portugal (his personal belongings did, however); the new President, John Adams, decided to send his son to Prussia instead. While it was true that Prussia was a more significant posting, JQA had his heart set on Portugal (in part, due to the climate). JQA's confirmation to Prussia was on hold in the Senate, however; charges of nepotism spread through the chamber. After three postponements, the Senate finally confirmed JQA as the U.S. Minister to Prussia
In 1799, JQA negotiated a trade agreement with Prussia, providing the U.S. another strong trading partner, which would help expand America's wealth as well as reduce the national debt. However, the "Quasi-War" with France began to interfere with all American trade to Europe. During the "XYZ Affair" with France, when the Democratic-Republicans (e.g. Jefferson and Madison) scoffed at the allegations against the French, JQA revealed and confirmed the identities of "XYZ"; JQA stifled the pro-French rhetoric in the Democratic-Republicans across the U.S.
Stifling the "XYZ Affair" was one thing, but dealing with the cries for war against France was another. Even at the national level, the "Honor Culture" demanded satisfaction for the French slight on America's honor from the "XYZ Affair." The pressure on President John Adams to go to war with France was immense; Abigail Adams tried to give Americans an outlet for their rage by starting a fad that spread across the nation: she wore a black feather in her hat which signified opposition to the Tri-Colors (France's flag). In America's first undeclared war, American and French ships attacked each other on the Atlantic in the late-1790s.
Stifling the "XYZ Affair" was one thing, but dealing with the cries for war against France was another. Even at the national level, the "Honor Culture" demanded satisfaction for the French slight on America's honor from the "XYZ Affair." The pressure on President John Adams to go to war with France was immense; Abigail Adams tried to give Americans an outlet for their rage by starting a fad that spread across the nation: she wore a black feather in her hat which signified opposition to the Tri-Colors (France's flag). In America's first undeclared war, American and French ships attacked each other on the Atlantic in the late-1790s.
Instead of calling for a declaration of war, President Adams asked Congress for money for a real navy; twelve warships were built, each carried at least twenty guns. In addition, he issued "Letters of Marque" to American privateers (private ship owners could attack French ships, and keep what they confiscated; over 1000 privateers were in action), and asked Congress to enact an embargo on France. The U.S. controlled the Caribbean, and held their own in the Atlantic, stunning the French; JQA informed his father that the results were so disastrous that France wanted to quickly reconcile with the U.S. JQA, sensing increased respect for the U.S. across Europe, urged his father to negotiate with France. President Adams sent new emissaries to France - they arrived on the cusp of Napoleon's coup-de-tat against The Directory.
President John Adams lost his bid for re-election in 1800 against Thomas Jefferson; Adams would have easily won if not for Hamilton's (a Federalist) personal attacks and Timothy Pickering's (another Federalist!) political attacks. Instead, Jefferson had 73 Electoral Votes, while Adams had 65 - even more frustrating for Adams was knowledge that if the news of France's reconciliation with the U.S. had reached America a few weeks earlier, he would have been re-elected - Adams was right to avoid a declared war with France. Before he left office, President John Adams recalled JQA from Berlin, saving him the embarrassment of being ordered home by President Jefferson. For JQA, it was a shock-to-the-system that he was back home in Boston as a private citizen after over half-a-decade as a foreign minister. He was bitten by the political bug, however, and it wouldn't be long until JQA found his way back not only into national politics, but also back to the world of European diplomacy, in the most coveted and prestigious of all European postings, American Minister Plenipotentiary to Great Britain.
President John Adams lost his bid for re-election in 1800 against Thomas Jefferson; Adams would have easily won if not for Hamilton's (a Federalist) personal attacks and Timothy Pickering's (another Federalist!) political attacks. Instead, Jefferson had 73 Electoral Votes, while Adams had 65 - even more frustrating for Adams was knowledge that if the news of France's reconciliation with the U.S. had reached America a few weeks earlier, he would have been re-elected - Adams was right to avoid a declared war with France. Before he left office, President John Adams recalled JQA from Berlin, saving him the embarrassment of being ordered home by President Jefferson. For JQA, it was a shock-to-the-system that he was back home in Boston as a private citizen after over half-a-decade as a foreign minister. He was bitten by the political bug, however, and it wouldn't be long until JQA found his way back not only into national politics, but also back to the world of European diplomacy, in the most coveted and prestigious of all European postings, American Minister Plenipotentiary to Great Britain.