Source: Richard Brookhiser. Alexander Hamilton, American (1999)
Among the Founding Fathers, Alexander Hamilton would probably be the only one that would recognize (and appreciate) modern America. His vision of a financially sound nation that produced and traded manufactured goods was in conflict with the vision of Thomas Jefferson, who envisioned a far more self-sufficient, pastoral nation. When Hamilton proposed a National Bank in late-1790, the creation of the first political parties became inevitable. Viewed not only as a threat to the nation, but to their way of life, Thomas Jefferson and James Madison spearheaded ferocious opposition to Hamilton's vision of what America should become. By 1795, the vast majority of Hamilton's Economic Plan had been enacted by Congress, and his Federalist Party dominated all three branches of the new federal government. Hamilton resigned as the first Secretary of the Treasury early that same year; always achievement-oriented, he felt that he had succeeded in establishing a sound foundation for America to flourish in the future.
Although Alexander Hamilton sometimes stated that he was a "Bastard Child From a Caribbean Whore", in actual fact, his mother was a good businesswoman on the island of St. Croix (southeast of what is now Puerto Rico). While her business affairs were in good order, she did face difficulty in her personal life. She remarried before her divorce was finalized, which created a social scandal on the small island. Ironically, Hamilton's father was a bum, walking out on his family, but only moving a few islands away, and never provided any assistance.
It was in this situation that Hamilton started working full-time as a nine year-old boy, in what would eventually be called a General Store. Hamilton so impressed his adult mentors that arrangements were made to send the teenage Hamilton to Princeton to study. Even at that age, Hamilton wrote responses (editorials) in newspapers that were well-received. When the Revolutionary War started, Hamilton volunteered, serving in Henry Knox's artillery regiment at Trenton and Princeton.
It was in this situation that Hamilton started working full-time as a nine year-old boy, in what would eventually be called a General Store. Hamilton so impressed his adult mentors that arrangements were made to send the teenage Hamilton to Princeton to study. Even at that age, Hamilton wrote responses (editorials) in newspapers that were well-received. When the Revolutionary War started, Hamilton volunteered, serving in Henry Knox's artillery regiment at Trenton and Princeton.
Two months after the victory at Princeton, Hamilton was promoted to Lt. Colonel, and joined General George Washington's official family. Being Washington's aide was demanding and exhausting - the General wanted people that were excellent administrators, but also the ability to solve problems on their own. To illustrate Hamilton's capabilities, he served as an aide to Washington for four years; Aaron Burr lasted ten days. In Washington, Hamilton, for the first time (and probably the only time) met a man greater than himself. Hamilton was quicker in terms of analysis and drawing proper conclusions, but in everything else, Washington was equal or better.
Both Washington and Hamilton wanted order; the General wanted things done right, and Hamilton knew he was the man that could do everything the way Washington wanted. Before the Battle at Monmouth (1778), Hamilton's duties were administrative and in the battlefield, but after the battle, his duties became entirely administrative. In short, Hamilton was Washington's main conduit to all the groups outside the army, including the national legislature under the Articles of Confederation. By the end of the Revolutionary War, Hamilton saw pressing problems in the nation, the army, and Congress, and he started to think about how those problems could be solved.
Both Washington and Hamilton wanted order; the General wanted things done right, and Hamilton knew he was the man that could do everything the way Washington wanted. Before the Battle at Monmouth (1778), Hamilton's duties were administrative and in the battlefield, but after the battle, his duties became entirely administrative. In short, Hamilton was Washington's main conduit to all the groups outside the army, including the national legislature under the Articles of Confederation. By the end of the Revolutionary War, Hamilton saw pressing problems in the nation, the army, and Congress, and he started to think about how those problems could be solved.
In trying to find answers to those problems, Hamilton educated himself, especially with economic data and theory (unlike his future opposition, Jefferson & Madison). Ironically, both Hamilton and Madison wanted to expand the power of the national government, especially with a new Executive. But Hamilton was the one that studied markets and industry, and worked hard to try and figure out what worked in Europe. Among Hamilton's many conclusions was that Great Britain became a superpower due to the Bank of England; they were able to expand their economy at a tremendous rate due to financial organization and being able to issue loans.
When Hamilton married Betsey Schuyler, he entered Upstate New York high society; people who viewed themselves as equal, or even superior, to any Planter in the South. In was often said in New York that the Clintons had the power, the Livingstons had the numbers, but the Schuylers had Hamilton. While Hamilton married into New York society, he was never really truly embraced, since he was an achiever, while the "Gentlemen" were simply "possessors".
When Hamilton married Betsey Schuyler, he entered Upstate New York high society; people who viewed themselves as equal, or even superior, to any Planter in the South. In was often said in New York that the Clintons had the power, the Livingstons had the numbers, but the Schuylers had Hamilton. While Hamilton married into New York society, he was never really truly embraced, since he was an achiever, while the "Gentlemen" were simply "possessors".
Hamilton was sent to the Congress of the Articles of Confederation as a representative from his district in New York; soon after arriving, he met a Virginia representative by the name of James Madison. Almost immediately they started to collaborate, and did so for the rest of the 1780s. There main difference during that decade was that Hamilton was driven by finding solutions to problems, while Madison was driven by theories.
Hamilton developed a reputation in Congress as that of an impatient, impolitic reformer; his desire to achieve solutions to problems ran into a brick wall called "The Status Quo", and after eight months, he returned to New York to continue his law practice (while he was always in demand as a lawyer, he never got rich). Hamilton's desire for law and order was seen as he represented many former Loyalists in court, trying to reclaim their property under the Trespass Act.
Before long, Hamilton was sent back to Congress, and he and Madison organized a convention to be held in Annapolis in 1786; problems over commerce was the stated reason for the convention. When only five of the twelve states convened in Annapolis (no enough for a quorum), Hamilton and Madison issued a statement that there would be another convention the following year in Philadelphia; Madison convinced Hamilton to reword part of that statement to read ". . . and adjust to the federal system."
Hamilton developed a reputation in Congress as that of an impatient, impolitic reformer; his desire to achieve solutions to problems ran into a brick wall called "The Status Quo", and after eight months, he returned to New York to continue his law practice (while he was always in demand as a lawyer, he never got rich). Hamilton's desire for law and order was seen as he represented many former Loyalists in court, trying to reclaim their property under the Trespass Act.
Before long, Hamilton was sent back to Congress, and he and Madison organized a convention to be held in Annapolis in 1786; problems over commerce was the stated reason for the convention. When only five of the twelve states convened in Annapolis (no enough for a quorum), Hamilton and Madison issued a statement that there would be another convention the following year in Philadelphia; Madison convinced Hamilton to reword part of that statement to read ". . . and adjust to the federal system."
Hamilton was one of three New York delegates at the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, 1787. However, the other two were loyal to George Clinton, and Hamilton was constantly out-voted 2-1 in the New York Delegation. He felt that he had no impact on the agenda for the convention: he disliked both the Virginia and New Jersey Plans, but was powerless to say or do anything of consequence. Also, his idea of an "Elected Monarch" as the new Executive went nowhere; in short, he left the convention because was didn't feel that he was allowed to be a full participant.
While Hamilton was in Philadelphia, Madison agreed with him that state debts from the Revolutionary War should be "assumed" by the new government - for political reasons a few years later, Madison will completely change his stand on the issue of "Assumption". Both also agreed that the idea of "Assumption" should stay in the background, and not even be debated on the floor of the convention. Hamilton was the only New Yorker to sign the Constitution on 17 September, 1787; Clinton had basically recalled his two men after getting reports that the national government would likely change.
While Hamilton was in Philadelphia, Madison agreed with him that state debts from the Revolutionary War should be "assumed" by the new government - for political reasons a few years later, Madison will completely change his stand on the issue of "Assumption". Both also agreed that the idea of "Assumption" should stay in the background, and not even be debated on the floor of the convention. Hamilton was the only New Yorker to sign the Constitution on 17 September, 1787; Clinton had basically recalled his two men after getting reports that the national government would likely change.
While Hamilton was at best a minor supporting character at the Constitutional Convention, he would run point during Ratification; his main problem was to get the state of New York to ratify the document in the face of stout opposition from George Clinton. Hamilton turned to the press, writing over twenty Federalist Essays, and then enlisting the help of James Madison to join the battle. In reading the Federalist Essays from Hamilton and Madison, it seemed that future disagreement would have been impossible. But they had their own points-of-view on certain topics: Madison wanted to block tyranny, while Hamilton focused on the potential greatness of the nation under the Constitution.
During the Ratifying Convention in New York, Hamilton employed a Madisonian strategy of analyzing each clause of the Constitution, while arguing it merits. Hamilton's arguments did indeed change some votes; the New York convention voted 30-27 to ratify the Constitution.
During the Ratifying Convention in New York, Hamilton employed a Madisonian strategy of analyzing each clause of the Constitution, while arguing it merits. Hamilton's arguments did indeed change some votes; the New York convention voted 30-27 to ratify the Constitution.
To President George Washington, the only choice for the first Secretary of the Treasury was his former trusted military aide, Alexander Hamilton. Washington also named Henry Knox (his artillery officer) as SecWar, and fellow Virginian Edmund Randolph as Attorney General. The only member of Washington's Cabinet that Hamilton did not know was SecState Thomas Jefferson, fourteen years his senior. Jefferson's "pedigree" of a Virginia Squire ruffled Hamilton's feathers; merit and achievement were the true mark of a man according to Hamlton, not his origin.
SecTreas Hamilton determined that the key to Great Britain's greatness was the Bank of England, which in issuing loans was able to influence the "Velocity of Money", and expand the economy, and their empire. Hamilton also concluded that a nation can thrive if it is in debt, but only if the debt is manageable, and the nation has great standing in terms of credit. As Hamilton would discover, opposition to forming a national bank was based mostly on economic ignorance, and fear of losing state-level control (and a certain standard-of-living).
The Treasury department was by far the largest, and most difficult to run, segment of the Executive Branch in the early years of the Constitution. Hamilton worked FAR harder than Jefferson at his Cabinet post; State was a far more leisurely endeavor. Hamilton needed to establish procedures & precedents for the Treasury; the other three Cabinet level departments had no such dilemma.
SecTreas Hamilton determined that the key to Great Britain's greatness was the Bank of England, which in issuing loans was able to influence the "Velocity of Money", and expand the economy, and their empire. Hamilton also concluded that a nation can thrive if it is in debt, but only if the debt is manageable, and the nation has great standing in terms of credit. As Hamilton would discover, opposition to forming a national bank was based mostly on economic ignorance, and fear of losing state-level control (and a certain standard-of-living).
The Treasury department was by far the largest, and most difficult to run, segment of the Executive Branch in the early years of the Constitution. Hamilton worked FAR harder than Jefferson at his Cabinet post; State was a far more leisurely endeavor. Hamilton needed to establish procedures & precedents for the Treasury; the other three Cabinet level departments had no such dilemma.
On 14 January, 1790, Hamilton issued his "Report on Credit"; he wanted to re-establish America's foreign and domestic credit. The U.S. was in debt to Revolutionary War veterans, speculators, states, foreign nations, and European banks (especially Dutch banks). Hamilton wanted to issue securities, which he believed would provide immediate revenue to repay debts, and increase the level of trust among citizens for the new government. Hamilton wanted to lift the U.S. economy by creating capital (the word was not yet used that way), and the best way to create that capital was to issue securities (citizens loaning money to the government).
In order to repay the domestic debt to veterans, Hamilton proposed to pay fifty cents on the dollar: if a person presented $10 in Continental Dollars, he would receive $5 in new currency. It was impossible to keep word of that plan secret, and hordes of speculators roamed the countryside, offering to buy Continental currency for ten cents on the dollar. At about the same time, Hamilton released his plan of "Assumption", in which the federal government would take over state debts (the vast majority of the states were in deep debt due to the war).
Madison opposed Hamilton on both issues, further stating that only the original holder of the Continental Dollars should be paid, not the unscrupulous speculators (even though in the 1780s he had the opposite position on both issues . . . Virginia politics of the early-1790s was the reason for his reversal). Madison wanted to cripple "Assumption" in the House by including all state debts, those that had been paid, and those that had not (Virginia would be "in the black" as a result), gambling that the amount would be too much for his colleagues to support.
Faced with organized opposition for the first time in his life, Hamilton responded with his best political move of his career. At a very small dinner party, hosted by Jefferson, Hamilton agreed to support a future capital city on the Potomac River. In response, Madison would vote against "Assumption" to save political face, but he and Jefferson would work behind-the-scenes to secure its passage. In effect, Hamilton sacrificed his state of New York (NYC was the current capital) in order to advance his vision of a financially-secure United States.
In order to repay the domestic debt to veterans, Hamilton proposed to pay fifty cents on the dollar: if a person presented $10 in Continental Dollars, he would receive $5 in new currency. It was impossible to keep word of that plan secret, and hordes of speculators roamed the countryside, offering to buy Continental currency for ten cents on the dollar. At about the same time, Hamilton released his plan of "Assumption", in which the federal government would take over state debts (the vast majority of the states were in deep debt due to the war).
Madison opposed Hamilton on both issues, further stating that only the original holder of the Continental Dollars should be paid, not the unscrupulous speculators (even though in the 1780s he had the opposite position on both issues . . . Virginia politics of the early-1790s was the reason for his reversal). Madison wanted to cripple "Assumption" in the House by including all state debts, those that had been paid, and those that had not (Virginia would be "in the black" as a result), gambling that the amount would be too much for his colleagues to support.
Faced with organized opposition for the first time in his life, Hamilton responded with his best political move of his career. At a very small dinner party, hosted by Jefferson, Hamilton agreed to support a future capital city on the Potomac River. In response, Madison would vote against "Assumption" to save political face, but he and Jefferson would work behind-the-scenes to secure its passage. In effect, Hamilton sacrificed his state of New York (NYC was the current capital) in order to advance his vision of a financially-secure United States.
Alexander Hamilton officially called for the formation of a National Bank in December, 1790, citing numerous advantages in his statement. He proposed raising $10m in initial capital (the total of all U.S. banks was $2m), $8m from investors, and the remaining $2m from various revenues (e.g. tariffs). The Bank Bill easily passed the Senate, but ran into stout opposition with James Madison in the House; he raised the question of whether-or-not the Bank was Constitutional. Madison reversed himself once again from his views during the 1780s; one of his fears was that Philadelphia would become the permanent national capital, despite the Potomac agreement. Hamilton argued that the National Bank was not only Constitutional, but it would also be able to provide money quickly in an emergency, or for the national military. Hamilton's arguments overwhelmed the Madison faction, the House passed the Bank Bill, and Washington signed it into law (it was informally-yet-universally understood that the capital would be on the Potomac).
Hamilton released his "Report on Manufactures" in December, 1791, which provided another opportunity to communicate his idealized industrial vision for America. Hamilton relied heavily on Tench Coxe, the new Deputy SecTreas (the first, William Duer, had fallen from Hamilton' graces); to Hamilton and Coxe, industry represented national salvation. Hamilton argued that industry would enhance and support agriculture (a win-win), and would also increase individual enterprise and initiative. Money for all this manufacturing would come from domestic banks (especially the National Bank) and foreign investors. Paterson, New Jersey became the test-center for this industrial vision - it was none other than Hamilton's Showcase (a water-powered plant near Monmouth)
Hamilton released his "Report on Manufactures" in December, 1791, which provided another opportunity to communicate his idealized industrial vision for America. Hamilton relied heavily on Tench Coxe, the new Deputy SecTreas (the first, William Duer, had fallen from Hamilton' graces); to Hamilton and Coxe, industry represented national salvation. Hamilton argued that industry would enhance and support agriculture (a win-win), and would also increase individual enterprise and initiative. Money for all this manufacturing would come from domestic banks (especially the National Bank) and foreign investors. Paterson, New Jersey became the test-center for this industrial vision - it was none other than Hamilton's Showcase (a water-powered plant near Monmouth)
The second-half of 1791 was not all wine-and-roses for Hamilton. Hamilton was tremendously gullible when dealing with attractive young women, as the "Reynold's Affair" showed. Maria Reynolds claimed to be a New Yorker from a prominent family who: a) Needed money, and; b) Was afraid of her husband. The gullible SecTreas not only loaned her money (personal, not from the Treasury), but also "visited" Mrs. Reynolds over the next several weeks. Hamilton was being blackmailed: Maria was a whore, her husband was a pimp, and they were conspirators in extorting money and patronage from the Secretary of the Treasury . . . the nation would learn of this affair soon enough.
On other matters, the SecTreas knew what he was doing. In settling debts by issuing securities, he solidified the nation's credit, which allowed industry to develop. The economy would generate revenue that would fund the pay-back of those securities, with interest. This cycle would be repeated again-and-again, expanding America's economy, and increasing the overall standard of living. While there was significant opposition to Hamilton's "Scheme", the votes were simply not in existence in either house to block his financial/industrial program.
The National Bank was an entirely different matter, in part due to the reality that the Bank could change the national landscape almost immediately to the benefit of some, and to the detriment of others. The debate over the National Bank was the crisis that led to the creation of political parties (Federalists & Republicans). As stated earlier, Hamilton had never experienced this level of organized opposition, as orchestrated by Jefferson and Madison. Hamilton's Economic Plan was to the detriment of the Planters, who were accustomed to living in luxury by running up huge debts that they never really had to pay-off. In short, Southern Planters were afraid that they would lose their power and wealth in their state / region. Some Northerners opposed Hamilton as well, since there was a huge level of inherent distrust with banks in America.
On other matters, the SecTreas knew what he was doing. In settling debts by issuing securities, he solidified the nation's credit, which allowed industry to develop. The economy would generate revenue that would fund the pay-back of those securities, with interest. This cycle would be repeated again-and-again, expanding America's economy, and increasing the overall standard of living. While there was significant opposition to Hamilton's "Scheme", the votes were simply not in existence in either house to block his financial/industrial program.
The National Bank was an entirely different matter, in part due to the reality that the Bank could change the national landscape almost immediately to the benefit of some, and to the detriment of others. The debate over the National Bank was the crisis that led to the creation of political parties (Federalists & Republicans). As stated earlier, Hamilton had never experienced this level of organized opposition, as orchestrated by Jefferson and Madison. Hamilton's Economic Plan was to the detriment of the Planters, who were accustomed to living in luxury by running up huge debts that they never really had to pay-off. In short, Southern Planters were afraid that they would lose their power and wealth in their state / region. Some Northerners opposed Hamilton as well, since there was a huge level of inherent distrust with banks in America.
The "Rupture" occurred in April, 1791 during a Cabinet meeting that took place without President Washington. In attendance were SecTreas Hamilton, SecState Jefferson, SecWar Knox, and V.P. John Adams. After listening to Hamilton's arguments in defense of the National Bank, Jefferson concluded that the Banks would be a clone of Great Britain's, and therefore a threat to the nation. It was at this point that Jefferson, by his own admission, started the "Newspaper War" in 1792 that further polarized the fledgling political parties.
Hamilton's foreign birth also complicated things at this point; Jefferson's minions in the press concluded that only a "Low-Born" (Hamilton) would stoop to corruption in service of the public. As a result, there was no way Hamilton and Jefferson could work together in any meaningful or productive manner, due to their competing ambitions, vision, origin, and base characteristics (e.g. Hamilton was achievement-driven, Jefferson less so).
The year 1792 featured more problems for SecTreas Hamilton. His former Deputy SecTreas, William Duer (corrupt to his core; Hamilton refused to enable him) was sentenced to debtor's prison. Jefferson and Madison pounced on that event, claiming that if Duer was corrupt, then Hamilton must be as well. Jefferson's main newspaper publisher / pitbull, William Freneau, featured constant attacks on Hamilton, to which Hamilton obviously felt the need to respond.
A quote from a personal letter that Jefferson sent to Washington, complaining about Hamilton, was telling: "A man whose history, from the moment history stooped to notice him, is a tissue of machinations against the liberty of the country." This quote is telling, not only showing that Jefferson was a "Virginia Squire Snob", but also that he didn't consider Hamilton a fellow Founding Father, due in part to his Caribbean origin.
Hamilton's foreign birth also complicated things at this point; Jefferson's minions in the press concluded that only a "Low-Born" (Hamilton) would stoop to corruption in service of the public. As a result, there was no way Hamilton and Jefferson could work together in any meaningful or productive manner, due to their competing ambitions, vision, origin, and base characteristics (e.g. Hamilton was achievement-driven, Jefferson less so).
The year 1792 featured more problems for SecTreas Hamilton. His former Deputy SecTreas, William Duer (corrupt to his core; Hamilton refused to enable him) was sentenced to debtor's prison. Jefferson and Madison pounced on that event, claiming that if Duer was corrupt, then Hamilton must be as well. Jefferson's main newspaper publisher / pitbull, William Freneau, featured constant attacks on Hamilton, to which Hamilton obviously felt the need to respond.
A quote from a personal letter that Jefferson sent to Washington, complaining about Hamilton, was telling: "A man whose history, from the moment history stooped to notice him, is a tissue of machinations against the liberty of the country." This quote is telling, not only showing that Jefferson was a "Virginia Squire Snob", but also that he didn't consider Hamilton a fellow Founding Father, due in part to his Caribbean origin.
In December, 1792, three members of Congress visited Hamilton about his involvement with Maria Reynolds (remember her?), including Senator James Monroe (by now a protege of both Jefferson and Madison). When confronted with the evidence (both anecdotal and written), Hamilton freely admitted the affair. In essence, Hamilton chose to protect his public life at the expense of his private life (namely, his wife, Betsey). The good news for Hamilton was that the three members of Congress believed Hamilton, and strongly advised Jefferson to let the matter rest, at least for the present . . . the affair would become public knowledge, but not due (directly) to Jefferson.
In January, 1793, a Congressional investigation commenced, trying to prove that Hamilton had defrauded the Treasury (Jefferson & Madison figured they might as well attack his public life). Congress demanded a full accounting of the Treasury during its first three-and-a-half years of existence. In only four weeks, Hamilton responded in great detail, and exposed the opposition's ignorance of finance, as well as their political bias. Congress kept investigating Hamilton nonetheless; the investigations didn't stop until he resigned as SecTreas in 1795.
The entire political tone in America changed for the worse in 1793, featuring actual conflict on many fronts. The French Revolution divided Americans - there were riots and privateers galore, much of which was caused by the actions of the French Ambassador Edmund Charles Genet. The Federalists supported Britain, while the Republicans supported France; it seemed that any opposition to one's views was tantamount to treason.
In January, 1793, a Congressional investigation commenced, trying to prove that Hamilton had defrauded the Treasury (Jefferson & Madison figured they might as well attack his public life). Congress demanded a full accounting of the Treasury during its first three-and-a-half years of existence. In only four weeks, Hamilton responded in great detail, and exposed the opposition's ignorance of finance, as well as their political bias. Congress kept investigating Hamilton nonetheless; the investigations didn't stop until he resigned as SecTreas in 1795.
The entire political tone in America changed for the worse in 1793, featuring actual conflict on many fronts. The French Revolution divided Americans - there were riots and privateers galore, much of which was caused by the actions of the French Ambassador Edmund Charles Genet. The Federalists supported Britain, while the Republicans supported France; it seemed that any opposition to one's views was tantamount to treason.
The largest armed uprising before the Civil War occurred in Western Pennsylvania in 1794: The Whiskey Rebellion. Among the causes of the revolt was Hamilton's excise tax on whiskey, from which he anticipated quite a bit of revenue for the federal government. Among the "political" rebels (there were nasty "radical" rebels as well) was Congressman Albert Gallatin, who ironically would become SecTreas in the early-1800s, and would distinguish himself in that capacity. Fortunately for Gallatin and the other "political" rebels, Hamilton had concluded that they did not commit any crimes against the federal government . . . but that wasn't the case with the "radical" rebels, who physically took up arms and marched on Pittsburgh.
President Washington ended the revolt with an offer of amnesty, after leading a few thousand militiamen far enough west to intimidate the rebel leadership; he turned over command to Hamilton, and returned East. Shortly after the Whiskey Rebellion, Hamilton notified Washington that he would resign as SecTreas early in 1795. He felt he had accomplished as much as he possibly could, especially after the Whisky Rebellion established the precedent that the federal government could and would enforce their own laws. Also, his family finances dictated that he return to his profitable law practice in New York City.
President Washington ended the revolt with an offer of amnesty, after leading a few thousand militiamen far enough west to intimidate the rebel leadership; he turned over command to Hamilton, and returned East. Shortly after the Whiskey Rebellion, Hamilton notified Washington that he would resign as SecTreas early in 1795. He felt he had accomplished as much as he possibly could, especially after the Whisky Rebellion established the precedent that the federal government could and would enforce their own laws. Also, his family finances dictated that he return to his profitable law practice in New York City.
In 1795, Great Britain issued the "Orders of Council" which in essence turned back the clock to the days of Mercantilism: the British started to confiscate U.S. ships that were suspected of heading towards France. British captains that did so were de facto privateers, since they were able to keep a large quantity of what they confiscated. Adding humiliation to injury, the British also still held ten forts in the Northwest (e.g. Fort Detroit), and were able to monopolize the lucrative fur trade. Washington needed to send a diplomat of stature to try and negotiate improved relations with Britain, and although many thought Hamilton would be the special envoy, Washington instead sent John Jay (he thought Jay was a better choice, and would be far-more diplomatic than Hamilton). Interestingly, Hamilton was tasked with drawing up Jay's instructions as the special envoy, which Jay made sure his counterpart was aware (Hamilton was very much admired in most of the circles of British government).
The Jay Treaty came back to the U.S. in March, 1795 (negotiations had actually started before the Whiskey Rebellion); even the Federalists didn't like most of the treaty . . . at best, Britain "promised" to do certain things; at least war with Britain was avoided. Washington turned to his former SecTreas for advice and assistance in trying to get the Senate to ratify the Jay Treaty. Once again, Hamilton's essays supporting and analyzing the Jay Treaty dampened enough of the opposition where it was ratified without a vote to spare (20-10) in the Senate, and signed by President Washington.
Hamilton was assailed (verbally and even physically) at mob protests in New York City against the Jay Treaty; Hamilton never quite figured out that it was impossible to talk some sense into a mob. Hyper-Passion was in fashion, and angry mobs became the norm. In terms of politics, it seemed that everyone had lowered himself after 1793; among the few that hadn't resorted to that "lowering" was Hamilton.
That was the Hamilton as of 1795; a very different Alexander Hamilton would surface in the following years, he was influential in determining the the outcomes of two Presidential elections, and he would be a participant in America's most famous duel . . .
Hamilton was assailed (verbally and even physically) at mob protests in New York City against the Jay Treaty; Hamilton never quite figured out that it was impossible to talk some sense into a mob. Hyper-Passion was in fashion, and angry mobs became the norm. In terms of politics, it seemed that everyone had lowered himself after 1793; among the few that hadn't resorted to that "lowering" was Hamilton.
That was the Hamilton as of 1795; a very different Alexander Hamilton would surface in the following years, he was influential in determining the the outcomes of two Presidential elections, and he would be a participant in America's most famous duel . . .