Source: Harlow Giles Unger. John Quincy Adams (2012).
John Quincy Adams had a gift of being able to make meaningful personal connections with European diplomats and heads-of-state, as well as those in high society. That ability served him (and his nation) extremely well at his diplomatic posts in The Netherlands, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain, as well as eight years as President Monroe's Secretary of State. When JQA was elected president in 1824, that gift became a curse - he was unable to connect with the vast majority of the American people, which explained, in large part, his immense unpopularity as the nation's chief executive. After his decisive defeat in the Election of 1828 to Andrew Jackson, JQA returned to Massachusetts in his mid-sixties, assuming he would live the rest of his life in political exile as a disgraced former President. Little did JQA realize that in a little over a year, he would start down a path that would lead to perhaps the most significant and productive Post-Presidency in U.S. History, and that his death would be mourned by millions of Americans.
Not long after JQA returned home, a long-time member of Congress from his district retired, and to JQA's surprise, he was actively recruited to replace him. As always, JQA was upfront, telling his supporters and voters that he would be an independent representative of the district, focusing on their needs, but also issues that were important to him. JQA was in a state of "joyful disbelief" at going back into politics in Washington, D.C., and he was one of the new members sworn in to the 22nd Congress in early-1831.
Back in Quincy, Massachusetts when Congress was in recess, JQA gave a speech on 4 July attacking the principle of Nullification, calling state sovereignty a "hallucination." JQA received news later that day that former President James Monroe had died (he joined J. Adams and Jefferson as former Presidents that died on 4 July). JQA's eulogy of Monroe was published in most newspapers, and was very well received - his reputation was being restored. That fact wasn't lost on the Democratic House leaders, who thought that JQA was making another run at the Presidency. Instead of placing JQA on the Foreign Affairs Committee, he was named the Chairman on the Committee of Manufactures - it was an attempt to isolate JQA, similar to what the Massachusetts state legislature tried to do when the kicked JQA "upstairs" to the U.S. Senate in 1802.
JQA became an expert on the procedures and rules of the House (more so than his colleagues), and he flaunted House tradition and used his right as a committee chairman to read citizen petitions that had nothing to do with industry or manufactures. On the first day the 22nd Congress was in session, JQA read fifteen petitions that attacked slavery - in the early-1830s, Abolitionists had a voice in Congress.
Back in Quincy, Massachusetts when Congress was in recess, JQA gave a speech on 4 July attacking the principle of Nullification, calling state sovereignty a "hallucination." JQA received news later that day that former President James Monroe had died (he joined J. Adams and Jefferson as former Presidents that died on 4 July). JQA's eulogy of Monroe was published in most newspapers, and was very well received - his reputation was being restored. That fact wasn't lost on the Democratic House leaders, who thought that JQA was making another run at the Presidency. Instead of placing JQA on the Foreign Affairs Committee, he was named the Chairman on the Committee of Manufactures - it was an attempt to isolate JQA, similar to what the Massachusetts state legislature tried to do when the kicked JQA "upstairs" to the U.S. Senate in 1802.
JQA became an expert on the procedures and rules of the House (more so than his colleagues), and he flaunted House tradition and used his right as a committee chairman to read citizen petitions that had nothing to do with industry or manufactures. On the first day the 22nd Congress was in session, JQA read fifteen petitions that attacked slavery - in the early-1830s, Abolitionists had a voice in Congress.
It was not a great time to be an Abolitionist in 1831; most Americans, even in the North, viewed them as extremists that threatened the social order. 1831 was also the year that the Nat Turner Revolt occurred (the largest and worst of the African slave revolts in the South), which resulted in very restrictive slave codes being enacted throughout the South. It was in this volatile atmosphere that JQA packaged himself as a representative of the whole nation, not just his district. JQA took his job as a member of the House very seriously - from 1831 to his death in 1848, he had perfect attendance when the House was in session. With his dogged passion for certain issues, and his expertise of House procedures, he was in effect that era's Ernie Chambers - JQA would not go away, which caused a high level of consternation among his colleagues.
JQA became a student of industry and manufactures, and discovered that the Northern textile industry was addicted to Southern cotton and African slavery. So, as chairman, he broadened his committee's sphere of influence via tariffs; the Tariff of 1832, a compromise of the Tariff of 1828 (the "Tariff of Abominations") was largely JQA's doing. Even though that tariff lessened the burden on Southern states, South Carolina used the tariff as an excuse to threaten to secede from the Union at the height of the Nullification Crisis. In typical JQA fashion, focusing on the issues, he voted yes for President Jackson's Force Bill against South Carolina in 1833, and then opposed Jackson's efforts at eliminating tariffs.
JQA became a student of industry and manufactures, and discovered that the Northern textile industry was addicted to Southern cotton and African slavery. So, as chairman, he broadened his committee's sphere of influence via tariffs; the Tariff of 1832, a compromise of the Tariff of 1828 (the "Tariff of Abominations") was largely JQA's doing. Even though that tariff lessened the burden on Southern states, South Carolina used the tariff as an excuse to threaten to secede from the Union at the height of the Nullification Crisis. In typical JQA fashion, focusing on the issues, he voted yes for President Jackson's Force Bill against South Carolina in 1833, and then opposed Jackson's efforts at eliminating tariffs.
In December of 1835, James Smithson left $500 million to the U.S. Government for the purpose to increase and diffuse knowledge in the U.S. JQA was named the chairman of the committee that was responsible for the disbursement of Smithson's financial windfall, largely because the Democratic leadership in the House didn't really know what to do with the money, and that "Egg-Head" Adams should know what to do with the money. JQA was ridiculed as President for wanting to develop and spread knowledge in America, and in the mid-1830s, JQA must have felt totally vindicated. Ironically, as chairman of the committee responsible for spending Smithson's money, JQA had far more power than he did as President, and he used that power well and wisely. JQA can rightly be called "The Father of the Smithsonian Institution", in that he made sure that the money wasn't siphoned away for other reasons. He also successfully argued that the Constitution did not prohibit a public institution like the Smithsonian, since it was based in the District of Columbia, not in a state. Among the first things JQA made sure the money was spent on was construction of what became known as the Smithsonian Castle.
The 1830s was the decade in which the "Gag Rule" originated, banning the debate of slavery in the House - it started when the Speaker of the House, future President James Knox Polk, refused to recognize JQA during a debate on a resolution restricting free speech against slavery. "Am I gagged, or am I not" was JQA's response after the 95-82 vote in favor of
limiting free speech on the topic of slavery. JQA was an expert on parliamentary procedure, and he kept finding ways around the "Gag Rule"; for example, JQA would read a PRAYER against slavery, reminding his irate colleagues that a prayer was not a petition. JQA made sure he kept his arguments on the right of petition instead of the abolition of slavery, which also skirted much of the "Gag Rule." JQA also pointed out, on the record, that there sure were a lot of mixed-race kids in the South - he was the only one at that point in Congress that spoke out against the hypocrisy of African slavery. JQA kept winning rhetorical battles in debate, and somehow avoided censure - he had earned the nickname "Old Man Eloquent", even by those that despised his politics.
The 1830s was the decade in which the "Gag Rule" originated, banning the debate of slavery in the House - it started when the Speaker of the House, future President James Knox Polk, refused to recognize JQA during a debate on a resolution restricting free speech against slavery. "Am I gagged, or am I not" was JQA's response after the 95-82 vote in favor of
limiting free speech on the topic of slavery. JQA was an expert on parliamentary procedure, and he kept finding ways around the "Gag Rule"; for example, JQA would read a PRAYER against slavery, reminding his irate colleagues that a prayer was not a petition. JQA made sure he kept his arguments on the right of petition instead of the abolition of slavery, which also skirted much of the "Gag Rule." JQA also pointed out, on the record, that there sure were a lot of mixed-race kids in the South - he was the only one at that point in Congress that spoke out against the hypocrisy of African slavery. JQA kept winning rhetorical battles in debate, and somehow avoided censure - he had earned the nickname "Old Man Eloquent", even by those that despised his politics.
John Quincy Adams continued to be a political meteor in the House, fighting against what he termed "Slaveocracy"; his new focus was to oppose the admission of territories into the Union as slave states. JQA led the fight in the House against the recognition of Texan Independence in 1836; he was able to avoid the "Gag Rule" in talking about the potential expansion of slavery by getting enough representatives to overrule the Speaker. By 1836, JQA had become a national presence, which he never achieved in his single term as President.
In 1836, Jackson's 2nd Vice-President, Martin Van Buren, became the 8th President, and John Quincy Adams renounced party affiliation, officially becoming an Independent. When Congress resumed in 1837, JQA was determined to save his nation from destroying itself from within by opposing the practice of slavery. Desire was one thing, but the political realities were another - the "Three-Fifths Compromise" was still in effect, and by increasing the number of African slaves, Southern states were able to increase their number of representatives in the House by 35%. The increase in Southern representatives meant that JQA faced the real possibility of being expelled from the House of Representatives.
In 1839, the first attempt to expel JQA from the House began; however, stalemate gripped the House in terms of organizing leadership positions and populating committees. So, ironically, JQA was named Speaker Pro-Tem (temporary Speaker) in order to get the House organized - even those that hated his politics viewed him as fair, honest, and impartial, a true patriot. Once the House was organized and the committees established, the "Gag Rule" was put back in place, and efforts continued to censure and expel JQA from the House.
In 1836, Jackson's 2nd Vice-President, Martin Van Buren, became the 8th President, and John Quincy Adams renounced party affiliation, officially becoming an Independent. When Congress resumed in 1837, JQA was determined to save his nation from destroying itself from within by opposing the practice of slavery. Desire was one thing, but the political realities were another - the "Three-Fifths Compromise" was still in effect, and by increasing the number of African slaves, Southern states were able to increase their number of representatives in the House by 35%. The increase in Southern representatives meant that JQA faced the real possibility of being expelled from the House of Representatives.
In 1839, the first attempt to expel JQA from the House began; however, stalemate gripped the House in terms of organizing leadership positions and populating committees. So, ironically, JQA was named Speaker Pro-Tem (temporary Speaker) in order to get the House organized - even those that hated his politics viewed him as fair, honest, and impartial, a true patriot. Once the House was organized and the committees established, the "Gag Rule" was put back in place, and efforts continued to censure and expel JQA from the House.
In 1839, an event occurred that focused attention away from the attempted expulsion of JQA from the House: the Amistad Incident (Steven Spielberg directed a movie about the event in 1997). The Amistad was a Spanish slave ship, and a mutiny occurred on board as it was crossing the Atlantic. As a result of a bizarre set of circumstances on board, the ship wound up in Connecticut, and President Martin Van Buren had a political hornet's nest with which to contend. Were the Africans property, or were they people with rights (e.g. habeas corpus)? Did the U.S. Government even have jurisdiction in the matter? Ellis Gray Loring, a friend of JQA, and Roger Sherman Baldwin (grandson of Roger Sherman, a Founding Father), asked JQA to join them pro bono on behalf of the Africans; JQA agreed to do so, at the age of 73.
Once again, JQA argued a case in front of the Supreme Court (among his previous cases were Fletcher v. Peck in 1810) on 24 February, 1841. JQA's arguments on behalf of the Africans from the Amistad lasted four hours, and the Supreme Court justices were transfixed. An associate justice suddenly died after the events of the day, and arguments were postponed for a week. On 1 March, 1841, JQA continued his arguments by using humanistic and spiritual principles. In essence, JQA triple-dog-dared the Court to be the equals of their predecessors (he even named their predecessors). The Supreme Court voted unanimously to free the 30+ Africans, allowing them to return to West Africa. In his mid-70s, JQA decided to continue serving in the House; the Amistad Incident had re-energized him; he also knew that if he quit, he would wither instead of prosper.
Once again, JQA argued a case in front of the Supreme Court (among his previous cases were Fletcher v. Peck in 1810) on 24 February, 1841. JQA's arguments on behalf of the Africans from the Amistad lasted four hours, and the Supreme Court justices were transfixed. An associate justice suddenly died after the events of the day, and arguments were postponed for a week. On 1 March, 1841, JQA continued his arguments by using humanistic and spiritual principles. In essence, JQA triple-dog-dared the Court to be the equals of their predecessors (he even named their predecessors). The Supreme Court voted unanimously to free the 30+ Africans, allowing them to return to West Africa. In his mid-70s, JQA decided to continue serving in the House; the Amistad Incident had re-energized him; he also knew that if he quit, he would wither instead of prosper.
William Henry Harrison won the Election of 1840, becoming the first President from the Whig Party; about a month in his term as President, he suddenly died of pneumonia, and his Vice-President, John Tyler, became the 10th President. With Tyler's approval, the House prepared to censure AND expel John Quincy Adams from the House of Representatives.
(JQA had always been fascinated with technology, and in 1843, he became the first President to be photographed; the first photograph was in 1842, but it was lost, and JQA's 1843 daguerreotype became the famous image)
While opposing forces tried to remove JQA, he kept up his fight against slavery. He read a petition that supported dissolving the Union, and then to show the political inconsistency and hypocrisy involved, had the Declaration of Independence read into the record. JQA had now become even more famous and admired across the nation (except in the South, of course). The Prentiss-Adams Act outlawed dueling in the District of Columbia; JQA likened dueling to slavery, in that a better pistol shot could control / blackmail / intimidate an inferior shot.
Letters came pouring in to the House supporting JQA from citizens across the nation, which led to the motion censuring JQA to be tabled. Immediately, JQA introduced 200 petitions against slavery, and then spoke, summarizing the petitions . . . those words became the Constitutional basis for President Lincoln when he issued the Emancipation Proclamation. By the early-1840s, JQA had become even more popular than President John Tyler, and had rejoined a prestigious circle of celebrated (and despised) politicians that included Henry Clay and Daniel Webster.
(JQA had always been fascinated with technology, and in 1843, he became the first President to be photographed; the first photograph was in 1842, but it was lost, and JQA's 1843 daguerreotype became the famous image)
While opposing forces tried to remove JQA, he kept up his fight against slavery. He read a petition that supported dissolving the Union, and then to show the political inconsistency and hypocrisy involved, had the Declaration of Independence read into the record. JQA had now become even more famous and admired across the nation (except in the South, of course). The Prentiss-Adams Act outlawed dueling in the District of Columbia; JQA likened dueling to slavery, in that a better pistol shot could control / blackmail / intimidate an inferior shot.
Letters came pouring in to the House supporting JQA from citizens across the nation, which led to the motion censuring JQA to be tabled. Immediately, JQA introduced 200 petitions against slavery, and then spoke, summarizing the petitions . . . those words became the Constitutional basis for President Lincoln when he issued the Emancipation Proclamation. By the early-1840s, JQA had become even more popular than President John Tyler, and had rejoined a prestigious circle of celebrated (and despised) politicians that included Henry Clay and Daniel Webster.
Few Americans understood President John Quincy Adams, but EVERYONE understood Representative JQA. In the early-1840s, JQA had not only became one of the most sought-after American politicians, he had become one of the most celebrated Americans in the Western World; Charles Dickens even wanted to meet the esteemed Representative from Boston.
Finally, in 1844, Congress abolished the "Gag Rule", 105-80; it was the first victory of the North over the South in the battle over slavery. As JQA traveled the nation promoting the sciences (e.g. the study of astronomy at universities), he discovered, ironically enough, that he actually enjoyed campaigning, something he had steadfastly refused to do all his political life.
As Congress voted to go to war with Mexico in 1846, JQA was one of 11 members of the House that voted against the declaration of war. In 1847, JQA suffered a stroke, but he mostly recovered; however, he was markedly weaker than he was before the stroke. When Congress reconvened, JQA received a warm round applause from the House; among those that applauded was a freshmen representative from a district in Illinois - Abraham Lincoln. Lincoln became one of JQA's greatest supporters against the expansion of slavery, and for federal funding for transportation (e.g. railroads). On 11 July, 1847, John Quincy Adams celebrated his 80th birthday.
Finally, in 1844, Congress abolished the "Gag Rule", 105-80; it was the first victory of the North over the South in the battle over slavery. As JQA traveled the nation promoting the sciences (e.g. the study of astronomy at universities), he discovered, ironically enough, that he actually enjoyed campaigning, something he had steadfastly refused to do all his political life.
As Congress voted to go to war with Mexico in 1846, JQA was one of 11 members of the House that voted against the declaration of war. In 1847, JQA suffered a stroke, but he mostly recovered; however, he was markedly weaker than he was before the stroke. When Congress reconvened, JQA received a warm round applause from the House; among those that applauded was a freshmen representative from a district in Illinois - Abraham Lincoln. Lincoln became one of JQA's greatest supporters against the expansion of slavery, and for federal funding for transportation (e.g. railroads). On 11 July, 1847, John Quincy Adams celebrated his 80th birthday.
On 6 December, 1847, Congress resumed, but JQA's strength was ebbing away. Still, JQA never missed a day when Congress was in session - he no longer walked to the Capitol, though. Soon, he became too weak to even write in his diary, something he had faithfully done for about 70 years. On 21 February, 1848, President James Knox Polk sent the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo to the Senate for ratification. In the House, proposed resolutions concerning the treaty were debated, with JQA in opposition to virtually every resolution supporting the recently-concluded war with Mexico. During these debates, JQA suffered a massive stroke on the House floor; he never left the Capitol building, dying two days later in the Office of the Speaker on 23 February, 1848. Before he died, JQA asked to see Henry Clay, who arrived weeping, and left the office inconsolable. Clay wasn't alone: not since the deaths of Benjamin Franklin and George Washington had America experienced as intense a level of collective mourning. As JQA's "Mourning Train" traveled back to Quincy, Massachusetts, thousands of Americans stood by, paying their respects.
As a Representative, JQA connected with the American people, something he was unable to do when he was President. JQA had lived in the shadow of his father, John Adams, one of the most important and accomplished Founding Fathers, the only one that was involved in the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, and the Treaty of Paris, 1783. As President, John Adams had some notable achievements, especially avoiding war with France. But John Quincy Adams was able to achieve something that his legendary father never could - as a result of his time in the House of Representatives battling against slavery, he was truly mourned by the American people when he died (except in the South, of course . . .).
(Below: segments from Steven Spielberg's "Amistad" featuring John Quincy Adams,
portrayed by Oscar-winner Sir Anthony Hopkins)
As a Representative, JQA connected with the American people, something he was unable to do when he was President. JQA had lived in the shadow of his father, John Adams, one of the most important and accomplished Founding Fathers, the only one that was involved in the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, and the Treaty of Paris, 1783. As President, John Adams had some notable achievements, especially avoiding war with France. But John Quincy Adams was able to achieve something that his legendary father never could - as a result of his time in the House of Representatives battling against slavery, he was truly mourned by the American people when he died (except in the South, of course . . .).
(Below: segments from Steven Spielberg's "Amistad" featuring John Quincy Adams,
portrayed by Oscar-winner Sir Anthony Hopkins)